Austronesian Comparative Dictionary by Robert A. Blust Department of Linguistics University of Hawaii Honolulu HI 96822 808-956-3235 Internet: blust@uhunix.uhcc.hawaii.edu Bitnet: blust@uhunix.bitnet Copyright (c) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Robert A. Blust. NB: The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary is a work in progress. You may copy or quote it only by express permission of its author. #article (2) */a/\1 article WMP: PAL /a/ article OC: TIGAK /a/ article: a, the LABEL /a/ definite and indefinite article RAL /a/ definite and indefinite article: the, a, an. It is prefixed to all common nouns, except those of a personal nature expressing relationships, parts of the body and person equipment, and also to adjectives; the possessive pronouns do not take it BUG /a/ personal article, used with proper names; used also of particular persons and with relationship terms NGG /a/ personal article, with names of people; prefix to personal pronouns; prefixed to /hanu/, indefinite pronoun `So-and-so'; personifies when prefixed to verbs LAU /sa/ personal article, now obsolete SA'A /a/ personal article, used with all names of persons, and with certain nouns, and also with verbs; (a) precedes all personal names (except in the vocative), both native and foreign, male and female; (b) used with relationship terms to indicate a particular person, (c) the relationship terms /hu?e/ `wife', /poro/ `husband', /keni/ `woman, wife', /mwela/ `child', are not ordinarily preceded by /a/, but require the addition of a demonstrative; (d) in stories the article /a/ may be prefixed to /poro/ and /hu?e/, which may be translated `Lord' and `Lady'; (e) after the Melanesian idiom the noun /ola/, prefaced by the personal article /a/; /a ola/, denotes `So-and-so'; (f) the nouns /kei/, denoting a female, /mwai/, denoting a male, /mwau/, boy, are used with the personal article and a demonstrative; (g) the interrogative /atei/ `who, what person' is made up of /a/ and /tei/ `interrogative'; (h) there is a regular use of /a/ in personification; (i) used with a verb to indicate a descriptive title ARS /a/ personal article, used with names native or foreign; used with a common noun to personify; with verbs or adjectives to form a descriptive noun or nickname; and with pronouns; it seems to have been used once with names of places; also used with relationship terms FIJ /a/ common article, used (1) before nouns: /a tamata/ `a man or the man'; (2) before possessives (really nouns): /a noqu/ `mine'; (3) before the preformative /i/ NIUE /a/ particle used in the following cases: 1. before pronouns (except /au/), personal names, or local nouns when they are the subject of an intransitive verb; 2. before pronouns, personal nouns and names of months when they follow the prepositions /ki/ and /i/; 3. before a common noun following (but not preceding) a possessive pronoun; 4. before a demonstrative pronoun drawing attention to a noun associated with an indefinite article and an adjective; 5. after /falu/ (some), /a/ is used in place of the ordinary article, either singular or plural ANU /a/ particle placed between a preposition and a personal pronoun or a proper name, but not before a common noun NUK /a/ personal article RAR /a/ relative pronoun used before personal pronouns and before proper nouns MAO /a/ particle used 1. before names of persons, the pronouns /wai/ and /mea/, and names of canoes, months, etc. a) when they stand as subject in a sentence, b) when they follow any of the prepositions /i/, /ki/, /hei/, /kei/, c) in explanatory clauses NOTE: The history of this morpheme is problematic. In the Solomons and in Central Pacific languages reflexes of */a/ function as a personal article, in contrast to the common noun article */na/. Pawley (1972:58) reconstructs `Proto-Eastern Oceanic' */na/a/ `common article', and */(q)a/ `personal article', thus positing a rather dubious distinction between contrasting articles */a/ and */(q)a/. Similarly, Walsh and Biggs (1967) posit PPN_*/?a/ `personal article', but reconstruct */?-/ purely on the basis of TON_/?a-/. Since Tongan is known to have added initial glottal stop in the reflexes of some other grammatical morphemes (Clark 1976) the evidence for distinguishing */a/ `common article' and */qa/ `personal article' appears to be dangerously thin. This morpheme may be a sporadic shortening of */na/ which happened independently in a number of Oceanic languages. If so, however, it is puzzling that it often replaced */i/ as a personal article rather than continuing to function as a common noun article. #conjunction, #and (2) */a/\2 conjunction: and dbl. */ma/, etc. WMP: NIAS /a/ conjunction: and (in counting and determining dimensions), then OC: LOU /a/ and PON /a/ conjunction: however, and LNW /a/ and, (but) FIJ /a/ conjunction: and or but HWN /a/ and, then, but (usually preceding verbs, whereas /a me/ usually precedes nouns; /a/ may also connect words translated by English adjectives NOTE: Also MAO_/a_/ `and, and then (only connecting successive actions or events)'. #exclamation, #interjection (2) */a/\3 exclamation, interjection WMP: KAP /a/ introductory exclamation like English Oh or Well AKL /a/ exclamation of discovery; ``ah'' (with high intonation) TNTB /a/ exclamation of surprise (short for /ya/) GOR /a/ expression of satisfaction or ridicule BM /a/ exclamation capable of expressing joy or amazement, as well as fear and shock BAR /aa/ an exclamation which expresses a variety of emotions, above all uncertainty, amazement or annoyance MDR /a/ Oh! (exclamation expressing surprise at an unexpected occurrence, and as a response to a question or explanation) MAK /a/ exclamation: ha! See what I told you! CMP: MGG /a/ (at the beginning of a sentence) ah!; exclamation of surprise, contempt, etc. RMB /a/ exclamation: ah! NGA /a/ interjection: ah! oh! KMB /a'/ interjection of surpirse or terror OC: TIGAK /aa/ exclamation: ah! M-A /a_/ exclamation BUG /a/ exclamation: oh! used in address NOTE: Also NIAS_/aha/ `interjection: aha!', OJ_/ah/ `exclamation: ah!, oh!, ha!', OJ_/aha/ `exclamatory particle: ah!, oh!, alas!', PAL_/chach/ `oh! (exclamation of surprise)', KOM_/a?/ `interjection: ah!', SIKA_/?a/ `exclamation of surprise', ROTI_/a?a/ `exclamation'. The obviously iconic and universal character of this form should not discourage us from a reconstruction, since proto-languages were no less likely than attested languages to contain such words. #hesitation (1) */a/\4 hesitation particle F: ATY /a/aa/ maybe; hesitation syllable WMP: PGS /a/ interjection marking hesitation, agreement, disagreement, etc. CMP: ASI /a/ hesitation word: umm, uh OC: NUK /aa/ the sound of hesitation noise #imperative (1) */-a/\5 imperative suffix F: SAR /-a/ object focus imperative KNB /-a/ imperative suffix BUN /-a/ imperative suffix (Nihira) RUK /-a/ imperative suffix (Li 1973:37, 286) WMP: BKL /-a/ alternant command suffix for verbs taking /-on/ in the infinitive AKL /-a/ suffix attached to verbs of object focus #1 (with infix /-in-/ or suffix /-on/) to express a command MSK /-a/ suffix: active, imperative mode, object orientation JAV /-a/ imperative suffix SAS /-a/ pronominal suffix marking the object in imperatives BM /-a/ suffix that incites to action (no longer in general use) OC: KPA /-a/ imperative (transitivizing) suffix NOTE: Also KNB_/-au/ `imperative suffix', NIUE_/a_/ `sign of emphatic imperative'. Agreements in Saaroa, Bikol, Aklanon, and Mansaka suggest that this imperative suffix corresponded to the object focus of non-imperative forms. There is a fairly high probability that it ultimately derives from the same source as */-a/ `subjunctive' and */-a/ `3sg. object marker'. #ligature (1) */a/\6 ligature dsj. */Sa/ F: PAZ /a/ co-ordinate particle (links head and attribute) KAV /a/ nominative marker or linker between the attribute and head noun of an NP AMIS /a/ a connecting particle with some of the meaning of ``and''; modifying particle WMP: ITB /a/ connective particle; adjective-noun connective, clause connective PGS /a/ linking particle, uniting adjectives or descriptive phrases with verbs and nouns, relative sentences to main sentences, etc. PAL /a/ ligature, linking particle OC: LABEL /a/ ligature between nouns; also binds possessive pronouns and adjectives with nouns; genitive particle #3sg. object (2) */-a/\7 3sg. object WMP: MAR /-a/ objective/obligatory suffix BAL /-a/ suffix indicating the third person (singular or plural) as a pronoun expressing the genitive, or the agent of a passive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb TNTB /-a/ a short form of the pronominal suffix of the 3rd person, used with words that end in a consonant; it marks not so much the genitive relationship of the subject as the relationship of the word with /-a/ to the word that follows it UMA /-a/ 3sg. object (especially in future (gerundive) constructions) BAR /-a/ polite form of /-n~a/ `pronominal suffix of the 3rd person WOL /-a/ 3p. object suffix OC: GED /-a/ a suffix added to certain finite verb forms to indicate that the third person plural is the undergoer of an action MOTU /-a/ 3sg. object suffix LAK /-a/ 3rd person sg. object pronoun, suffixed to verb ROV /-a/ objective suffix EDDY /-a/ 3sg. object suffix BUG /-a/ suffixed pronoun of the object, added to verbs and prepositions; 3sg., him, her, it; serves as anticipatory object NGG /-a/ he, she, it, as suffixed to transitive verb AA /-a/ personal pronoun, 3sg., suffixed to verb (with or without verbal suffix) as object, and to prepositions as an anticipatory object, and used both of persons and things: him, her, it; where the object is collective the anticipatory object is used in the singular, and not in the plural ARS /-a/ personal pronoun: he, she, it; suffixed to verbs and prepositions GLB /-a/ personal pronoun object suffix of the 3rd person, joined to a transitive verb MOTA /-a/ personal pronoun, 3sg., suffixed as object to verb and preposition; him, her, it FIJ /-a/ transitive suffix TON /-a/ suffix forming transitive verbs, usually durational REN /-a/ suffix with passive, transitivizing, and multiplicative meanings, in close juncture KPA /-a/ object marker for 3sg. pronoun ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ni-a'/ 3sg. agent/possessor F: ATY /ni-a?/ 3sg. agent/possessor TAR /ni-a/ his, hers WMP: ITB /-na/ 3sg. agent and possessor ISG /-na/ his, her, its; he, she, it DGT /-na/ 3sg. agent and possessor SBL /-na/ 3sg. agent and possessor TAG /ni-ya'/ 3sg. agent and possessor BKL /-niya'/ 3sg. agent and possessor HAN /-niya'/ 3sg. agent and possessor KEL /-neh/ 3sg. agent and possessor TM /-no/ 3sg. agent and possessor KEN /-n~a/ 3sg. agent BIN /-n~a/ 3sg. agent and possessor MAL /-n~a/ 3sg. agent and possessor KB /-na/ 3sg/pl. possessor TB /-na/ 3sg. possessor AMB /-nia/ 3sg. possessor SIM /-nia/ 3sg. possessor ENGGANO /-nia/ 3sg. possessor OJ /-nya/ 3sg. possessor JAV /-ne/ 3sg. possessor GOR /-lio/ 3sg. possessor BM /-nia/ 3sg. possessor MUNA /-no/ 3sg. possessor CHM /-n~a/ 3sg. agent and possessor (Topping and Dungca 1973:225) PAL /-l/ 3sg. suffix of inalienable possession, used with body parts, kinship relations, and the relationship of part to whole CMP: VAIKENU /-nia/ 3sg. possessor KMB /na-/-na/ 3sg. pronoun; as a prefix /na-/ signals the actor: /na-laku/ `he is going'; as a suffix /-na/ parks a) possession: /na ama-na/ `his father', b) the agent in substantive constructions: /mba`da laku-na-ka/ `he has gone already', c) reference to past time: /la nomu wula-na/ `six months ago' ROTI /na-/ 3sg. subject pronoun LETI /-ne/ 3sg. possessor ASI /-n/ 3sg. (human and non-human) genitive pronoun for inalienable possession " /-ni/ 3sg. human genitive pronoun for inalienable possession " /na-/ 3sg. (human and non-human) genitive pronoun for alienable possession BURU /-na/ his, her, its; an ending for anatomical nouns (8) */-n~a/ 3sg. possessor of inalienable possessed nouns OC: WUV /-na/ 3sg. possessor SEI /-n/ 3sg. possessor LON /-n/ 3sg. possessor PEN /-n/ 3sg. possessor RAL /-na/ 3sg. possessor (with nouns of a personal nature, as body parts) GED /-n/ 3sg. possessor GITUA /-na/ 3sg. possessor BUG /-n~a/ 3sg. possessor LAU /-na/ he, she, it, him, her, after nouns and prepositions, usually called a possessive pronoun SA'A /-na"/ 3sg. pronoun suffixed to nouns of a certain class, the equivalent of the genitive (/nime/ `hand': /nima-na/ `his hand'; noun ending used with nouns denoting relationship ARS /-na/ 3sg. possessor; his, her, its, with certain classes of nouns; suffix to noun of relationship GLB /-na/ 3sg. possessor MOK /-n/ 3sg. possessor TRUK /-n/ 3sg. possessive pronoun; of him, her, it (used in partitive constructions in many expressions where it would not appear in English, as in expressions of time, but not consistently MOTA /-na/ 3sg. possessor, suffixed to a class of nouns and to one preposition LNW /-n/ 3sg. possessor FIJ /-na/ 3sg. possessor NOTE: Also ENGGANO_/-dia/, MENT_/inia/ `3sg. possessor'. As noted in Blust (1977), earlier reconstructions of the 3sg. genitive pronoun such as */-n~a?/ (Dyen 1974) and */-na/ (Dahl 1976:122) erred in interpreting */ni-a'/ as monomorphemic. As a result many irregular reflexes (Atayal, Tagalog, Javanese, Gorontalo, etc.) remained unexplained. I assume ultimate stress, since the genitive marker */ni/ is the non-contrastive element in genitive constructions. Given an etymon of such a shape and obviously high list and text frequency, it is not difficult to see how the initial consonant and following vowel sporadically contracted to a palatal nasal which then underwent a regular merger with */n/ in many daughter languages. #subjunctive (1) */-a/\8 subjunctive suffix F: ATY /-a/ suffix forming active subjunctive from the reduced stem, sometimes preceded by the prefix /m-/ WMP: CEB /-a/ subjunctive direct passive affix JAV /-a/ subjunctive suffix WOL /-a/ verbal suffix: subjunctive NOTE: Possibly the same affix as */-a/ `imperative', and */-a/ `3sg. object'. For arguments supporting the distinction of */-a/ `imperative' and */-a/ `subjunctive' cf. Wolff (1973:90). #carry (3a) */aba/\1 carry pick-a-back dbl. */baba/ WMP: BON /aba'/ carry on one's back, as a child or sick person KAN /aba'/ carry on the back (children are ordinarily carried in that way) AKL /aba'(h)/ to get, climb up on one's back NOTE: Also IFG_/abba'/ `carry a baby or little child on one's back with or without a blanket', MAR_/ababa/ `carry, as on the back'. These and the above forms may all reflect */a-baba/. #ah!, #oh!, #alas! (3) */aba'/\2 exclamation: ah!, oh!, alas! WMP: TAG /aba'/ emphatic denial; sudden reproach; simple surprise; hail! " /abah-i'n/ take notice of someone HAN /aba'/ an exclamation of surprise, admiration, wonder; the more commonly used form is /?aba?aba'/ AKL /aba'(h)/ an exclamation expressing strong disbelief: Really? Ah, go on! CEB /aba'/ exclamation of pleasure and surprise MAR /aba/ ah -- exclamation of surprise SUB /aba/ alas! BID /aba/ expression of warning to stop an action TB /aba'/ exclamation: ah!, oh!, alas! NOTE: Also CEB_/aba?a/ `particle indicating disapproval (literary)', SUB_/abaa/ `interjection of grief or wonder'. #father (1) */aba/\3 father F: ATY /aba/ father. Used in direct address only; otherwise /i-aba/ (< /i/ `prefix for persons' + /aba/) WMP: TIR /aba-y/ father NgD /aba/ father (used by and with small children) MLG /a'ba/ father, chiefly used by children MAL /aba-h/ father, papa SND /aba-h/ father (rare) WOL /abha/ father (term of address), daddy CMP: BIMA /aba/ father (used only within the family circle) NOTE: Also MAR_/abo/ `father', MOK_/apo9/ `father', BAR_/ambo/ `stepfather', MDR_/abi/ `father', BGS_/ambo?/ `father', WOL_/awo/ `stepfather, stepmother, etc.', YMD_/abe/ `mother-in-law'. Apparently a nursery word which has resisted normal sound change in a number of languages (e.g. Tiruray, Malay, and Bimanese, where we would expect /-w-/; Malagasy, where we would expect /-v-/). Although the Wolio form is cited by Anceaux as an Arabic loan, Wilkinson lists MAL_/aba/ `father (Arabic)', but MAL_/abah/ `father; papa', without indication of borrowing. Together with ATY_/aba/ these facts suggest that this cognate set is more likely to be a native form than a loan. Finally, although MAL_/aba9/ `elder brother' could be analyzed as /aba-9/ (with fossilized vocative suffix), and hence compared with the other forms cited here, I prefer to treat it as distinct and to withdraw the etymon */ab(ae)9/ `elder brother' proposed in Blust (1970). #join forces, #cooperate (3a) */abag/ join forces, cooperate in working WMP: KAN /aba'g/ put their money together; enter, get into partnership with somebody CEB /a'bag/ give material help, help do work NOTE: Also TAG_/haba'g/ `compassion', MAR_/aoag/ `distant relative'. Possibly a chance resemblance. #smack, #hit, #pound (2) */ambak/ stamp or smack against WMP: CEB /amba'k/ jump down to a lower place " /amba'k-amba'k/ jump up and down MbKC /ambak/ collide with something (person, post, etc.) MDR /amba?/ hit, beat MAK /amba?/ try to hit something in a game (one marble with another, billiard ball, etc.) CMP: YMD /ambak/ stamp on the ground with the foot NOTE: Possibly a product of chance. With root */-bak/ `sound of a heavy smack'. #hemp, #%Musa textilis% (3a) */abaka'/ Manila hemp: %Musa textilis% WMP: ITB /avaka/ fiber-producing banana tree. %Musa% sp. IFG /abaka'/ Manila hemp ILK /abaka'/ Manila hemp KAP /abaka/ the abaca plant, fiber, or cloth TAG /abaka'/ hemp BKL /a'baka/ abaca, Manila hemp: %Musa textilis% HAN /abaka'/ Manila hemp, abaca' (%Musa textilis Ne'e%) AKL /abaka'(h)/ abaca fibres, Manila hemp: %Musa textilis% MAR /waka/ %Musa textilis Nee%: abaca, Manila hemp TIR /wogo/ an abaca #beetle sp. (3a) */abal abal/ beetle sp. WMP: ILK /abal-a'bal/ k.o. brown burrowing June beetle or June bug. Many people eat it. TIR /abal-?abal/ k.o. scarab beetle, %Leucopholis irrorata Chevrolat% NOTE: TIR normally reflects PPH_*/-b-/ as //w//. This item may be a loan from an undetermined source, or perhaps a chance resemblance. #ambush, #block the way, #obstacle, #hindrance (3) */aba9/\1 ambush, block the way; obstacle, hindrance dbl. */qambat/ WMP: KAP /amba9-an/ obstacle, impediment to passage TAG /aba'9/ person asked to wait and watch for someone or some vehicle to come or pass by BKL /mag-aba'9/ wait, watch for " /ma9-aba'9/ keep watch, keep vigil BKL /aba'9-aba'9/ a hindrance (referring to a person who is always in the way) AKL /a'ba9/ obstruct, block, hinder; waylay, ambush KAY /ava9/ an ambush; to ambush KB /amba9/ restrain or hold back with outstretched arms, as a runaway horse BAL /amba9/ hinder, interfere with CMP: KOM /aba9/ cross-beam MGG /amba9/ obstruct, block the way RMB /amba9/ restrain, hold back with extended hands; to catch (a horse) with lasso SIKA /aba9-papak/ block the road, cut off the way KMB /amba/ check, stop, hold back (as a horse); to hinder NOTE: Also ITB_/aba9/ `lie in wait'. #ditch (3) */aba9/\2 ditch WMP: KEL /aba9/ ditch, canal KAY /aba9/ trench, ditch, excavation MAL /aba9-an/ water conduit of split /pina9/ stem BAL /aba9/ gutter, drain-pipe, channel " /aba9-an/ channel, groove SAS /aba9-an/ drain-pipe from roof, aqueduct ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */9-aba9/ make a gutter, ditch, or channel WMP: KEL /9-aba9/ make a ditch BAL /9-aba9/ make a gutter or channel NOTE: Perhaps also MAL_/aba9/ `dimple'. KAY_/aba9/ is regular only if it reflects earlier */amba9/. MAL_/aba9-an/ is irregular in any case, since */b/ normally became MAL_//w// in the sequence */-aba/. #rent (3a) */aba9/\3 rent WMP: BON /a'ba9/ to rent; the amount of rent that one pays ILK /a'ba9/ rent, rental, hire, interest " /aba'9-an/ to rent, hold under a lease, hire PGS /a'ba9/ rent, interest CEB /a'ba9/ rent; hire a prostitute; make an offering to a supernatural being for the use of land which is thought to be in his possession KAD /t-amba9/ fare (on bus, etc.); freight, freightage, passage money #support (3) */abat/\1 give a supporting hand WMP: HAN /a'bat/ leading by the hand CEB /a'bat/ hold on to something fixed to support oneself " /abat-a'n/ railing in the shape of a ladder for baby to cling to when he starts to walk IBAN /ambat/ lend a hand (to hold steady) #spirit (3a) */abat/\2 spirit that causes sickness WMP: ISG /a'bat/ a spirit who brings sickness to people whoever they are and wherever they abide BON /a'bat/ perform a ceremoney for someone who has had a spirit encounter; such a ceremony CEB /aba't/ any supernatural being or human with supernatural powers which shows itself in an unexpected and startling way NOTE: Also DIB_/abot/ `sickness in which the victim vomits red vomitus, caused by an evil spirit'. #wound (4) */abat/\3 wound, to wound CMP: NGA /abha/ cut oneself, wound BURU /abat/ wound SHWNG: BULI /yabat/ wound, be wounded NOTE: Also ASI_/apat/ `the unhealed wound of the recently circumcised penis'. #high, #lofty (2) */abaw/ high, lofty WMP: SGH /omu/ high MLG /avo/ high, lofty, eminent JAV /ambo/ hoist sail OC: ARS /saho-saho/ high, lofty; tilt up, tip up, elevate NOTE: Also ITB_/havavaw/ `shallowness', TAG_/hamba'w/ `superficial, shallow'. With root */-baw/ `high; top'. #side by side (3) */abay/ side by side WMP: DGT /abay/ stay parallel with (as for two people to walk side by side, or for workers harvesting in a field to stay together in a row, rather than one getting ahead of the others) KAN /a'bay/ to use like a friend; be the companion of; be friendly to; take a liking to; make very much of ILK /ag-a'bay/ to stand, etc. side by side; to sing in unison PGS /a'bay/ side, proximity; to approach, go near person or object close by; put beside KAP /ambay/ couple, pair (Berga{n~}o) " /abe/ accompany; live together, stay together; friend, companion (used as a term of address) TAG /a'bay/ best man in a wedding; maid-of-honor; escort BKL /a'bay/ accompany one another; participate in something together; best man, brides maid AKL /a'bay/ sponsor (at wedding or baptism) CEB /aba'y/ move along together with something moving; bridesmaid or best man MSK /aba'y/ be abreast WBM /avey/ walk together shoulder to shoulder; proceed side by side IBAN /ambai/ lover, sweetheart NOTE: The resemblance of IBAN_/ambai/ to the other forms cited here may be a product of chance. #wave (3) */ambay/ wave back and forth WMP: MAL /ambai/ purse-net attached to stakes in a tideway or river. The stakes hold its mouth open; the bunt trails away in the current TB /m-abe-abe/ wave back and forth OJ /away/ beckon, wave (to) JAV /awe-awe/ to wave LAUJE /ambe/ beckon with the hand NOTE: Also TBL_/keway/ `up and down movement, as the motion of a bamboo-suspended cradle'. Dempwolff (1938) included NgD_/awei/ `temporary wall (using only loose leaves, etc.)', but a connection appears difficult to justify. The comparison offered here is itself problematic, since TOTOLI_/kambe/ `beckon with the hand' suggests that LAUJE_/ambe/ (which regularly loses */k/) may not reflect */ambay/. #mat (3) */a(m)bek/ mat WMP: DGT /abek/ mat BETA /ambok/ mat #belly #strap (3) */amben/ belly strap dbl. */ambet/ WMP: SND /amben/ belly strap of a horse JAV /amben/ belly band for draft animal TAE' /aba9/ band, as an iron band around a chisel MAK /amba9/ belly strap of horses NOTE: Possibly a Javanese loan in the South Sulawesi languages. #strap (3) */ambet/ strap; something wrapped around dbl. */amben/ WMP: MAR /abet/ strap TIR /ambet/ catch a loose animal by entwining it in a rope KEL /abet/ way of tying; thing used to tie " /9-abet/ to tie BID /abUt/ securing devices: pin, band, tie, string, belt NgD /ambet/ brought near, drawn to one, seized MAL /ambat/ noose MAL (Jak.) /ambet/ child's first garment; swaddling band ALAS /abet/ coil; cloth that is wound around the body OJ /ambet/ to lash BAL /ambet/ strap " /ambet basa9/ saddle-girth NOTE: Also BID_/abet/ `wear a sarong without undergarment', KB_/abit/ `the long cloth that is fastened under the armpits by women'. #copulate (3a) */abij/ copulate WMP: ILK /a'big/ to copulate (usually applied to adultery) MSK /abid/ copulate, engage is sexual intercourse #sling over the shoulder (3a) */abijay/ sling over the shoulder WMP: ILK /abi'gay/ throw a blanket over the shoulder CEB /ambila'y/ carry something with a strap slung over the shoulder NOTE: Also ILK_/aba'day/ `carry something in a band slung over the shoulder', ILK_/abi'day/ `throw a blanket over the shoulder', TBW(K)_/kablay/ `carry suspended from shoulder diagonally', MAR_/abelai/ `hang over shoulder, sling across shoulder', MAR_/ambelai/ `put hand around shoulder'. #extension to house (3) */ambiq/ extension to house dbl. */surambiq/ WMP: KAP /ambi/ wing or interior gallery of a house (Berga{n~}o) TAG /ambi'?/ eaves, gable end KB /ambih/ make an extension to a house that is too small TB /ambi/ what one adds; the piece of material that a tailor adds to trousers that are too small SND /ambe'-n/ gallery, veranda of a house BAL /ambe'-n/ front balcony, porch, veranda, gallery SAS /ambe'-n/ side-wings of a roof; side-gallery of a house NOTE: This word apparently meant `gallery, veranda'. It is unclear what implications */ambiq/ has for inferences about the early Austronesian house. The only type of residential structure in use by Austronesian-speaking peoples today which regularly has a veranda is the communal longhouse, found widely over central and northern Borneo. Various considerations, however, suggest that the longhouse is a relatively late development. All that can safely be inferred on present knowledge is that some type of veranda-like extension was sometimes constructed on houses that appear to have normally lacked them. The Sundanese, Balinese and Sasak forms are assumed to reflect */ambiq-an/. #climb (3) */abit/ climb WMP: MALOH /ambit/ climb, clamber up PS */abit/ climb a tree SAN /awi?/ climb NOTE: Possibly a chance resemblance. Alternatively, the forms cited here may be compared with AMIS_/safit/ `cloth wrapped around the feet to help climb betel nut tree', and assigned to PAN_*/Sabit/ `long cloth wrapped around body and used for carrying' through this semantic connection. #seize with the #hand; #climb (2) */ambit/ seize with the hands WMP: SAMA(B) /ambit/ lead by the hand KAD /ambit/ take with the hands TB /ambit/ carry a child in the arms MENT /abit/ take along with, bring hither CMP: MGG /ambe't/ carrying astraddle on the hip (as in carrying a child); climb (a tree) with a rope looped around the feet (8) */ampit/ hold, get, take OC: NMB /-ambi/ hold, get, take ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-ambit/ take with the hands WMP: KAD /ma9-ambit/ take with the hands TB /ma9-ambit/ carry DPB /me9-ambit/ fetch or take in a figurative sense: take a woman from her lineage because she must reside with the lineage of her husband ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */maR-ambit/ take with the hands WMP: KAD /mag-ambit/ take with the hands TB /mar-ambit/ carry a child in the arms in front of oneself NOTE: Also TIR_/abit/ `beckon, wave someone to come by moving the palm of the hand down and towards the body', BID_/abit/ `plaited rattan carrying strap', BM_/abito/ `carrying basket'. With root */-bit/ `hook, clasp; grasp with fingers'. #fish sp. (3) */abu abu/ fish sp. WMP: CEB /abua'bu/ kind of fish MAL(J) /ikan abu-abu/ fish sp. MAK /au-au/ edible seafish, shining white and unspotted, the mackerel: %Scomber neglectus% NOTE: Also BKL_/a'bo/ `a fish, the grouper: %Epinephelus undulosus%', MAL_/ikan ambu-ambu/ `bonito fish: %Thynnus tunnina%', KAM_/apu/ `fish sp.'. BJR_/habu/ `young of the murrel (very small, like a fleck of ash): %Ophiocephalus striatus%)' evidently reflects */qabu/ `ash', and the same may be true of the present comparison.} #long (3) */abuat/ long (of objects) WMP: TBW(K) /abwat/ long HAN /abuwa't/ tall, high, referring to people or objects; height BTK /abwa't/ large; long IDA'AN /buat/ long KEN /buat/ long LgT /kebei?/ long LgJ /kuBit/ long LgW /buat/ long (of objects) MIRI /be't/ long BIN /(be)bat/ long #dew, #mist, #fog (3) */ambun/ dew, mist, fog dbl. */embun/, */hapun/ WMP: KAP /ambun/ dew " /may-ambun/ overcast, misty TAG /ambo'n/ shower, drizzle BKL /ambo'n/ dew; fog, mist, haze AKL /a'mbon/ fog, mist, haze " /ma-a'mbon/ foggy, covered with haze, hazy TBW(K) /ambun/ ground fog, mist LBIS /ambun/ fog BIN /ambun/ fog MURIK /abun/ cloud, fog NgD /ambon/ dew, fog SGH /abun/ cloud, fog BJR /ambun/ dew BID /ambun/ dew (in small drops) MALOH /ambun/ dew, vapor IBAN /ambun/ dew, damp MIN /ambun/ dew SND /awun-awun/ morning mist, fog, haziness OJ /awun-awun/ fine rain, wet mist OJ /ambun/ cloud (or mist?) JAV /awun/ dew SAS /awun-awun/ fog, mist TAE' /ambun/ dew, morning mist NOTE: Also GOR_/wambulo/ `fog', TET_/ai abu/ `fog'. #proud, #haughty (3) */ambu9/ proud, haughty dbl. */hambu'g/ WMP: IBAN /ambo9/ proud, haughty MLG /a'vona/ pride, haughtiness, arrogance NOTE: Also MAL_/sombo9/ `arrogance, self-assertion; be puffed-up with pride', /tambo9/ `stubborn, headstrong, arrogant'. #high, #above (3) */ambuq/ high, lofty dsj. */abaw/ WMP: CEB /ambu'?/ overlook, look from a high point (as in looking at someone downstairs), tower over MLG /a'mbo/ high, lofty, long, overhead " /a'vo/ high, lofty, eminent #beetle (2) */abuqa9/ beetle WMP: TAG /ambuwa'9/ large beetle KEL /bua9/ beetle (generic) CMP: NGA /fu?a/ kind of beetle, grub, larva in palm wine SIKA /bo?a9/ larva of a caterpillar NOTE: Also PAI_/qaqu9/ `soldier beetle', TAG_/uwa'9/, /u?a'9/ `big beetle, usually infesting coconut trees', BKL_/u'?a9/ `large, black, horned coconut beetle, living in and boring into palm trees', hence the reconstruction of */-q-/. TAE'_/ambo(y)o9/ `kind of beetle which emerges from felled sugar palms, and which develops from the white sago worm which lives on the pith of the sugar palm' appears to be distinct. #chase, #drive away (3a) */a'buR/\1 chase, drive away WMP: ISG /ma-a'bug/ be driven away BON /a'bol/ chase away chickens or animals, using a stick; the stick so used KAN /a'bu/ drive away, turn out, expel IFG /a'bul/ chase, repel, drive away IFGBt /a_bul/ frighten away chickens, rice birds, pigs, flies in any effective manner ILK /a'bug/ drive, drive away, incite CEB /a'bug/ chase, drive, drive away MSK /abog/ drive away, chase away DIB /abug/ drive away, drive out, chase WBM /avug/ to drive, as animals; drive away, force out MAR /abog/ scatter, drive away NOTE: Also TAG_/abo'y/ `something or someone being driven about; act of driving away' (probably an early Kapampangan loan). The similarity of YMD_/yabur/ `flee, run away' to the forms cited above is assumed to be a product of chance. #dust (3) */abuR/\2 dust dsj. */qabug/ WMP: CEB /abu'g/ dust; become dusty; turn into dust DIB /abug/ dust BID /ambur/ dust, broken bits NOTE: Also KAN_/abu'd/ `fine sand, fine mud'. #ashes (2) */abus/ ash dbl. */qabu/ WMP: IBAN /abus/ ashes CMP: MGG /awus/ ash at the tip of a cigarette, etc.; sparks RMB /awos/ spark, ashes #pull up, #uproot (2) */abut/ pull up, root up WMP: MLG /a'votra/ plucked up, rooted up, eradicated BJR /ambut/ tear off coconut husk BAL /abut/ pull out, pull up; raise (anchor) SAS /abut/ pull out (as plants from the ground); draw in, as a kite PM */abut/ pull out TNTB /awut/ to weed, pull up or out BAR /awu/ clear the ground of weeds and bushes " /ma-awut-i/ a piece of weeded ground OC: NGG /avu/ to weed AA /rahu/ uprooted; pull out NOTE: Also TET_/abut/ `root'. With root */-buC/ `to weed, pluck, pull out'. #dove, #pigeon (3) */aca9/ dove, pigeon WMP: KAD /asa9/ dove, pigeon KAY /asa9/ a bird of one of the pigeon species IBAN /aca9/ domestic pigeon BID /asa9/ domestic pigeon LPG /aca9-aca9/ dove, pigeon NOTE: Also BM_/asa-asa9/ `nocturnal bird sp.'. Possibly a product of borrowing, although it is noteworthy that this form is unattested in Malay (unless in the form /aca9/ `messenger, errand-boy', from the use of domestic pigeons to send messages). #cover (1) */aCab/ a cover F: PUY(T) /aTav/ a cover (in general) WMP: TAG /ata'b/ covering, roofing, or siding of palm leaves IBAN /antap/ cover, patch, lining, backing NOTE: Also PUY(T)_/?eTav/ `to cover'. #high, #tall (1) */aCas/ high, tall F: PUY(T) /a-Tas/ high " /maka-Tas/ on (2) */atas/ high, tall WMP: TAG /ta?a's/ height; physical stature (esp. of human body); eminence, nobility AKL /ta'?as/ become taller, grow taller; raise, elevate " /pa-ta'?as/ let get taller, let grow " /ka-ta'?as/ height, tallness HLG /ta'?as/ tall " /mag-ta'?as/ grow tall; raise, increase CEB /ta?a's/ long, tall, high; grow, appear long; add more length, height; do something in a long way; rise in temperature " /ha-ta?a's/ very long; high " /pa-ta?a's/ raise, lengthen, increase the length; upward MSK /ta?as/ locative, above, up TIR /ta?ah/ long NgD /atas/ on, upon IBAN /atas/ upon, above, over, (of position) upper JAR /ataih/ far RHA /taih/ distant, far MAL /atas/ position over or above ACH /ateue"h/ up, above; high SIM /atae/ high TB /atas/ above, on top " /di-atas/ above AMB /atas/ above, over SB /atas/ above, on top MENT /ata_/ tall, high LPG /atas/ above MAD /attas/ high; above SAS /atas/ high; above " /ber-atas/ go upward " /per-atas/ raise, elevate (of terrain) SMB /atas/ above SAN /atase?/ raise oneself up PM */atas/ above, on (top) TND /atas/ above CMP: ROTI /ata/ the heavens, the top (of); above, on top of KAM /ata/ long, tall; high OC: LAK /-ata/ up " /o-ata/ above " /g-o-ata/ go up, ascend MOTU /lata/ length; tall, long " /lata na-i/ upon " /lata-lata/ long, tall (intensive) MSH /ej/ formant in place names; upper; eastern KUS /yat/ eastern part of a village TRUK /aas/ upper part, top, summit; eastern side; above (vertically) PUL /ya'h/ tall, high, upper, easterly WOLEAI /-yas(a)/ up, upside " /yeriule-yas/ south-southeast ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */i aCas/ above, on top F: PUY(T) /i-Tas/ up, above (2) */i-atas/ above, on top WMP: BKL /i-ta?a's/ above, over; upstairs " /mag-i-ta?a's/ lift, raise, hoist, elevate [MAL /di-atas/ above, upon] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma-atas/ tall, high WMP: TAG /ma-ta?a's/ tall AKL /ma-ta'?as/ tall, high TB /m-atas ari/ midday (lit. `the sun is high/above') ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-atas/ lift or raise up WMP: BI /me9-atas/ climb up, ascend SAN /ma9-atase?/ raise oneself up ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */atas-n~a/ its top OC: MOTU /lata-na/ the top MAILU /ata-na/ top; up TRUK /asa-n/ above him; its upper side NOTE: Also TBL_/taha?/ `long, tall', SIM_/atas/, /a?tai?/ `high', SEL_/atat/ `high', GLB_/eta/ `top, upper, heavens (as opposed to the earth), the shore as opposed to the sea, the land; high'; /eta-eta/ `very high'; /i-eta/ above, ashore, over'. Although non-Formosan witnesses point consistently to */atas/ (with metathesis of the first vowel and consonant in Proto-Central Philippines) the reconstruction of a PAN etymon is more problematic. Tsuchida (1983) identifies the Puyuma stem as /-Tas/, since e.g. /i-Tas/ `up, above' lacks an initial stem vowel. If this analysis is adopted, however, comparison of the Formosan and extra-Formosan material becomes difficult. To explain the missing initial vowel in Puyuma /-Tas/ we might posit a stem */Caqas/ which is prefixed both in PUY(T)_/a-Tas/ `high', and in all MP languages. This hypothesis offers the minor advantage of deriving the Central Philippine forms without metathesis, but creates two more serious problems: 1) it forces us to assume an irregular loss of /-H-/ with contraction of the resulting vowel sequence in Puyuma, and 2) it forces us to assume that all non-Formosan reflexes outside the central Philippines contain an independently reconstructible prefix or particle (presumably */qa/ `locative particle') which has become fossilized. While this analysis may work for most reflexes in MP languages, it is not clear that the initial vowel in PUY(T)_/a-Tas/ `high' has any connection with */Sa/; the same must be said for the morphologically corresponding but probably convergent form CEB_/ha-ta?a's/ `very long; high'. As a compromise, then, I assume that PUY(T)_/-Tas/ shows an irregular loss of the first syllable vowel. Finally, Ross (1988:276) reconstructs POC_*/qatas/ `summit, top', but provides no supporting evidence for the initial consonant. #death (1) */aCay/ death F: BUN /atad_/ kill " /is-atad_/ be killed with something (Nihira) PUY(T) /ki-n-aTay/ (imp) die " /mi-a-n-aTay/ die " /pi-a-n-aTay/ kill (2) */atay/ death WMP: DGT /ate"/ die; dead; death IFG /ate'/ word-base of all the words that convey the meaning of death, die, kill, try to kill by fighting TIR /atey/ dying LD /ate/ death " /9-ate/ kill KEL /ate/ death " /9-ate/ kill TUNJUNG /pak-ate/ kill NIAS /ate-la/ burial place for the dead SAN /ate/ die " /kuk-ate/ be dying " /met-ate/ be dying BGG /ma9a-k-ate/ kill " /ba?a-k-ate/ commit suicide " /pooa-k-ate/ kill each other, fight to the death, duel, go to war ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */ka-atay/ kill WMP: KAN /adi k-ate'y/ not to die IFG /k-ate'/ death KIPUT /k-ata:y/ kill " /se-k-ata:y sediri?/ kill oneself, commit suicide MUK /k-atay/ stop, as an engine that was running " /k-en-atay/ was stopped, as an engine SAN /k-ate/ die! (imperative) CMP: BIMA /h-ade/ kill; extinguish (a fire) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ka-atay-an/ time or manner of death WMP: IFG /k-atay-a'n/ time of somebody's death, manner in which somebody dies TOTOLI /ka-ate-an/ death ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ma-aCay/ die; dead; eclipse of sun or moon F: SAI /masay/ die TSOU /m-co'i/ die " /hu-m-co'i/ dead man BUN /m-atad_/ die; be killed " /m-atad_ vali/ eclipse of the sun (2) */m-ata'y/ die; dead; sick; tired (of); faint, lose consciousness; eclipse; new moon; extinguished; blocked (path); paralyzed; numb, asleep (limbs); die down (wind); waterless (springs, rivers); dry up (plants); beaten (in a game); fixed (price); terminate a matter, reach an agreement; disaster; intensive, superlative; desire intensely, be deeply in love WMP: ISG /m-ata'y/ die " /matay-a_n/ relative of a dead person; having a dead person among (them) ITW /m-ata'y/ die KAN /mate'y/ die, depart this life, decease, expire, go out IFG /m-ate'/ he/she will die ILK /m-ata'y/ die, expire, perish, cease, become extinct, be (sick, tired) to death, become indifferent, stop KAP /m-ate'/ die TAG /pag-ka-mata'y/ death " /ma'-ma-matay/ assassin BKL /mata'y/ may I die; an oath taken whereby one swears to take his own life if he is not telling the truth HAN /ma'tay/ death " /maty-u'n/ killing " /m-ar-aty-u'n/ slaughter, killing on a large scale AKL /m-ata'y/ die " /mama-mata'y/ those destined to die HLG /m-ata'y/ die, pass away CEB /m-ata'y/ die; stop functioning (as a watch); for the moon to be in its invisible phase; exclamation of displeasure " /kala-maty-a'n/ a fatal spot on the body MAR /m-atay/ die WBM /m-atey/ die " /hi-matey/ kill BIL(K) /m-ati/ dead TBL /m-atay/ die RD /matay/ die KAD /matay/ die, expire, breathe one's last KEL /m-ate/ die; dead KIP /m-ata:y/ die; dead MIRI /matayh/ die; dead MUK /m-atay/ die; dead KAY /matey/ dead KEN /m-atay/ dead SIANG /m-atoy/ die MURUNG /m-atoy/ die TUNJUNG /m-ate/ die NgD /m-ata"y/ die; dead MLG /m-a'ty/ dead, gone out, as a lamp or a fire; in danger; set, as the sun; beaten in a game " /ma'ty-he'na/ benumbed, torpid, deprived of sensation " /ma'ti-ny hian'y/ a phrase used to express the setting of one's heart upon something: very desirous of, eagerly wishing for; lit. simply killed by it IBAN /mati/ dead; set (of the sun); fast, firm, tight, immovable MAL /mati/ death; extinction; perish " /me-mati-kan/ cause to die " /harga mati/ fixed price BI /mati/ die; dead; not having ever lived; various figurative senses, including: break up, of a gathering; quiet or ceased (wind); not moving any longer (machine parts); waterless (wells or springs); numb (skin); extinguished (lamp, fire, etc.); dead-end (path, etc.); fixed or agreed so that it cannot change (price, agreement, etc.); fallen quiet (as marketplace); not used any longer (as a language); set (sun) " /mati beranak/ die in childbirth " /mati kutu(n~a)/ unable to do anything any more MOK /matay/ die; dead TB /m-ate/ die; dead; go out (fire); die down, cease (wind); conclude (fight) " /m-ate dalan i/ the path/road cannot be used any longer " /mate ma ho/ a curse " /mar-mate-an/ die in throngs " /pa-mate-hon/ kill someone " /bulan mate/ new moon DPB /mate/ die; dead; blocked path; go out (fire); new moon; paralyzed NIAS /mate/ die; become paralyzed; dry up, wither; extinguish " /mate do~do~/ make a deep impression on something " /a-mate-la/ corpse MENT /matay/ dead; death; die; kill; go out (cigarette); set (sun); become feeble (penis) REJ /mateui/ die " /mateui bilai/ sunset LPG /m-ati/ dead SND /9a-mati-ken/ kill OJ /m(a)-ati/ die; dead " /sumur mati/ dried-up well JAV /mati/ dead; die; inert " /mati garing/ die of thirst " /mati sabil/ die in childbirth MAD /mate/ die; dead BAL /m-ati/ die, be quenched (fire); dead SAS /mate/ die; dead " /mate 9-anak/ die in childbirth " /mate seset/ suicide " /mate-?/ kill " /mate-a9/ kill TNTB /m-ate/ die; kill; a curse: may you die! DAMPELAS /ma-ate/ die; dead BM /m-atoy/ die, go out (fire, light) BGG /mate/ die UMA /m-ate/ dead; die BAR /mate/ die; dead; also used of something that has stopped moving or working; go out (fire, torch); stop spinning (top); stop moving (hands of a clock, the wind) " /mate mpoana/ die in childbirth TAE' /mate/ die; dead; disastrous, struck by misfortune " /mate deata/ what is meted out by the gods: die a natural death; lose (in playing dice); numb, asleep (of limbs) " /mate poso/ die suddenly " /mate ki-anak/ die in childbirth " /to mate/ deceased person, corpse; worthless MDR /m-ate/ die, pass away; dead MAK /mate/ dead; die; new moon; paralyzed (of limbs); having lost its force (as glue that is no longer adhesive); beaten (in a game); completely done (of a matter) " /bera9 mate/ worn-out bush knife " /jara9 mate/ horse that doesn't want to run any more " /takka luppa mate-mate/ totally forget " /ka-mate-i/ die somewhere; die with someone " /mate-i a9i9-a/ there is no wind, the wind has died WOL /mate/ dead; paralyzed; out (of light or fire); asleep (of hand or foot); death " /mo-mate-na/ deceased person " /bawabawa mate/ pregnant (because an unborn child is not yet alive) MUNA /mate/ die; dead POPALIA /mate/ die; dead " /hoko-mate/ kill PAL /mad/ die; (electricity, etc.) go out; go numb " /uleko-a'd/ dead, extinguished, paralyzed " /oameko-a'd/ kill; extinguish; put out " /meke-ma'd/ war CHM /matai/ dead; corpse; die " /matai-n~ala9/ famine, die of hunger (4) */matay/ die; dead {??keep gloss?} CMP: BIMA /m-ade/ kill; die out (of a fire) KOM /mate/ dead; died; the late MGG /mata/ die; dead; extinguished; lose in a game " /mata wula9/ lunar eclipse NGA /mata/ die; dead; become poor, decline SIKA /mate/ die; dead " /mate-9/ numb, of a foot or arm LAM /mata/ dead, deceased ERAI /mate/ die; dead; sleeping (of members of the body) " /mate e_r/ be parched with thirst (to death) " /mate klar/ starve KMB /meti/ die; dead; go out (fire); be eclipsed (sun) " /meti mari9u/ die a cool (natural) death " /meti mbanahu/ die a hot (unnatural) death (as when dying in an accident) " /marapu mameti/ corpse, cadaver SAVU /made/ dead ROTI /mate/ die; dead; go out (of a light); still (of the sea when becalmed); eclipse of the sun or moon " /beli-na mate/ the price is fixed " /(hataholi) mate nulak/ one who dies young " /mate la?as/ die of hunger " /mate-k/ be dead, be overcome (in a game) " /na-mate/ kill TET /mate/ die; extinguish (fire); wither, die (plants); stop or cease (machinery); dead, stopped " /mate-k/ dead, dormant, without life; dry (of plants) " /mate-n/ any animal (or bird) which is the loser in a fight, and by custom is condemned to death " /ai-n mate-k/ pins and needles in the leg " /kuda isi-n mate-k/ a quiet horse (easy to ride) " /mate-r/ kill, slay LETI /mati/ die; dead " /wulla (lera) n-mati/ the moon (sun) is eclipsed " /ri-mata/ corpse WETAN /mati/ dead; die " /mati wnoa/ hereafter, abode of the dead SEL /mati/ die YMD /mate/ die, go out (fire, light); finished, terminated, of a matter; (in some words) very, extremely , exceptionally KEI /ma_t/ die, go out (fire), stop (machinery); be defeated (in a game); be overgrown, of a path; abate (wind); becalmed (sea); dried up (spring) ASI /mata/ dead; die; lose consciousness; end in a receptacle without markers in the /jo9ka/ game (game language) ALUNE /mata/ dead, die " /mata-le/ dead KAM /mata/ dead PAU /mata/ dead; die " /mata-e/ die of something " /mata-e lala/ bleed to death HITU /mata/ die, dead SOB /mate/ die; dead " /mese? m-an-ate/ cook until well done, cook thoroughly BURU /mata/ die, faint, pass out; stop blowing (wind); by any means, in any way " /mata-k/ fulfilled, established, ready, finished; die of (as cold); ascertain; definitely; completely; to death " /mata-t/ dead SHWNG: BULI /mat/ dead; die, also said of a light going out, and of a wound, ulcer, or boil that has healed " /amcait matmat/ deathly afraid, scared to death (8) */mate/ die; dead OC: WUV /ma?e/ die, dead AUA /ma?e/ die, dead SEI /mat/ dead BIPI /mak/ die, dead LEIPON /i met/ he is dead TIT /mate-y/ die, dead " /ku ta-mate-y/ kill it! LOU /mat/ die, dead MUS /mate/ dead, die " /e mate la/ he is dead TIGAK /mat/ die TANGGA /met/ die; affix with a superlative adverbial effect: completely, very, utter, too much MENDAK /mare/ die, dead LABEL /mat/ die; be dead RAL /mat/ die; dead; extinguished, go out (of light or fire); numb; intensive particle and adverb: very, greatly, extremely LAK /mate/ out, of a fire MALEU /mate/ die KAIRIRU /myat/ die; dead, deceased MANAM /mate/ die, suffer " /mate-lako/ die " /madidi mate/ feel cold " /tole mate/ be hungry GED /mat/ die, expire, pass away, yield up the ghost, perish, stop (motor), go out (fire); long, yearn, crave, hanker, desire, love, like, pine, pant for, languish for, care, want, die (for), lust after NMB /mande/ die, faint, be paralyzed, long for GIT /mate/ die MOTU /mase/ die; adverb of intensity " /mase-anitu/ die from disease, not a violent death MEKEO /mae/ die, dead TUBETUBE /mate/ soundly, as in sleeping soundly " /i keno mate/ he is sound asleep KIL /mata/ dead; be out, come to an end; extinguish BANONI /mate/ die M-A /mate/ die, be sick, be tired ROV /mate/ die; dead EDDY /mate/ dead, weak, sick, rotten; death, illness resulting in death; die NGG /mate/ without movement; bedridden, paralyzed; numb, of a limb asleep; unconscious, fainted; dead; death; kill; extinguish; out, of a light; fighting man, soldier; enemy; ready, prepared; completely, quite; out, at cricket; withered, dry, as a branch LAU /mae/ without motion, still; unconscious, numb, paralyzed; to faint; die; stop (of a clock), go out (of a light); be eclipsed, of sun or moon; tired out, weak, very ill, ready for rest; war; rainbow " /mae-la/ danger " /mae-la-na/ dying, death; death feast " /mae-li/ kill KWAIO /mae/ die; dead; fight; death; blow (n.); finished, without residual obligations, of a financial transaction; unconscious; want very badly, very much " /mae-sia/ die from, completely, to the end SA'A /mae/ die; ill; become unconscious; numb; eclipsed, of moon; a fighting column; enemies; war; weapons; used with 3p. possessor and /ni/ genitive to denote excess " /mae apolo/ paralyzed " /mae-ha/ sickness " /mae-la/ death AA /ma_e/ unconscious; faint; ill; die; paralyzed; numb; war " /ma_e-si/ be ill of, die of " /ma_e-ta/ death feast, memorial feast " /?a_re ma_e/ weapons, instruments for killing " /a_si ma_e/ the calm sea in lagoons and passages, as opposed to /a_si mauri/, the open sea ARS /mae/ numb, unable to move, ill; be eclipsed (of moon); be unconscious, faint; die; death; enemy; fighting party; weapons; lee side of an island (where the sea is /mae'/) " /mae-ta(-na/) death feast GLB /mate/ death, disappearance, extinction; dead, defunct, paralyzed, stopped, extinct, tired, unconscious, lost, cancelled, taken, blocked (in games), known by heart, memorized; free, tranquil; calm (as the sea); die, go out (fire, etc.), stop (clock, etc.), perish, faint, succumb; extenuated, worn out, dead tired " /mate-akina/ desire, love " /mate-n tai/ eclipse of sun " /mate-n namakaina/ eclipse of moon MSH /mej/ dead; numb; death; disease; illness; peril; plague; wrath " /mej a_bwin/ palsy; paralyzed KUS /mis3/ death; die TRUK /ma'/ die, lose consciousness, lose sensation, become paralyzed; (fig.) be overcome with fatigue, hunger, or other physiological want; be extinguished (of a light), stop (of an engine) " /ma'a'/ death; loss of consciousness; collapse; paralysis; disease, illness, sickness, pestilence " /ma'a'se-n/ orphan (death parted) PUL /ma'/ die, be dead, dying, stricken, paralyzed, very sick; be killed; stop working, as a machine; death WOLEAI /mas/ death; dead person; (be) dead, die; disease, ailment, sickness MOTA /mate/ die, faint and appear to die; dead RAGA /mate/ die; dead LNW /m3r/ die; (be) dead; numb, unconscious, apparently dead " /m3ra-n/ death TANGOA /m"ate/ die; dead MAKURA /mat/ die; dead NGUNA /mate/ die; dead ANEITYUM /mas/ die; dead FIJ /mate/ death, disease, sickness; to die, be sick TON /mate/ die; sometimes used in the sense of stunned or quite unconscious; (of fire or light) go out, be out; (of a boat) be sunk or wrecked; (of a volcano) be extinct; (of wind) die down, cease; (of sun or moon) be eclipsed; (of clock or engine, etc.) to stop, not to be going; paralyzed (as a limb); dead; death; be utterly sick and tired of; be overcome or carried away with (laughter, weeping, desire, sleepiness, fear, etc.) NIUE /mate/ die, die out (as a fire); stop (as an engine); be desirous of, need intensely, be ill with deprivation; be destroyed " /ta_-mate/ kill SAM /mate/ (of animals, plants, fire, etc.) die " /ta-mate/ kill (animal or plant); (of a coco-nut tree, etc.) strip of leaves so as to kill REN /mate/ dead, dying, unconscious, faint, exhausted, paralyzed; be low tide; be killed or dead, as an engine; be extinguished or out, as a fire; to have stopped, as a clock; to be the dark of the moon; death, sorrow, sound of weeping (poetic) NAN /mate/ die; dead; death; funeral wake " /taa mate/ kill; switch off ANU /mate/ die KPA /made/ die; deceased; death; paralyzed NUK /made/ dead (of plants only); numb, paralyzed; go out (of a fire) RAR /mate/ general term for death: disaster, calamity, danger, defeat, ruin, oppression, hurt, injury, adversity, unconsciousness, subsidence, desire; out, as of a person being caught out when playing cricket; defeat, as in playing a game of cards or other game; a funeral burial; dead, oppressed, unconscious; extinguished, as a light; in lack of, in want of; loss of, as of vitality or vigor overcome with any emotions; overcome in a contest; deep emotion, as of a person or persons being deeply in love; calmed down, subsided; moving slowly or slack, as of the tide, slack water; beaten, as in any contest; benumbed, deadened, paralyzed; dried up, as the water of a stream; withered, as the foliage of trees; die, lose life, perish MAO /mate/ dead; extinguished; sick, ill, unconscious; injured, damaged, suffering; in want of, lacking; overcome with any emotion, the emotion being expressed; deeply in love; calmed down, subsided; moving slowly, slack; completed, finished, accomplished; caught; death; sickness, injury, wound; danger, defeat, calamity; desire; company of mourners HWN /make/ die; defeated, killed, unfortunate; to faint; death, fainting, danger of death, peril, destruction, misfortune; kill; deathly, deadly, faint, deceased, late; obsolete; poisonous; desire, want, to want ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */mate-a/ kill OC: NGG /mate-a/ kill HWN /make-a/ passive/imperative of /make/: be defeated, be killed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */m-atay-an/ lose someone through death WMP: TB /mate-an/ lose someone through death BGG /mate-an/ death TAE' /mate-an/ (of a possession) get rid of, damage something so that it becomes worthless MAK /mate-a9/ declare someone dead WOL /mate-a/ (case of) death, decease " /banua mate-a/ a bereaved house (8) */mate-an/ death OC: ROV /mate-ana/ large meteor (universally associated with the death of a leader) LAU /mae-a/ death, sickness MOTA /mate-a/ death, dying ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */mate-qa9a/ death OC: KWAIO /mae-9a/ death; war SA'A /mae-9a/ sickness, death NIUE /mate-a9a/ death REN /mate-?a9a/ death MAO /mate-9a/ time, circumstances, etc. of death ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */mate-na/ dead OC: SEI /i mate-n/ he is dying M-A /mate-na/ dead ROV /mate-na/ die; dead ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */pa(ka)-m-atay/ kill; commit suicide (?) WMP: AKL /paka-mata'y/ commit suicide CEB /paka-mata'y/ die for a cause; commit suicide; allow someone to die TAE' /pa-mate/ die; kill; numb something, bring under narcosis MAK /pa-mate/ mistake for dead CMP: KMB /pa-meti/ kill, bring to an end " /tau pa-meti tau/ killer, murderer SAVU /pe-made/ kill ROTI /ka-mate/ reach a firm agreement about something; keep still ASI /paka-mata/ deliver the final blows, administer a coup-de-grace; finish off PAU /fa-mata/ kill HITU /pa-mata/ kill SOB /ka-mate/ kill SHWNG: BULI /fa-mat/ kill (8) */paka-mate/ kill; commit suicide (?) OC: MALEU /pa-mate-9e/ kill BANONI /va-mate/ kill M-A /fa-mate/ kill ARS /ha?a-mae-si/ kill FIJ /vaka-mate/ go out, of a light NIUE /faka-mate/ hold the tongue, keep quiet SAM /fa?a-mate/ kill (an animal); (of fire) put out REN /haka-mate/ commit suicide or attempt to MAO /whaka-mate/ put to death; cause to be sick HWN /ho?o-make/ kill; pretend to be dead; let die, let diminish, grow faint ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */paka-mate-ia/ kill OC: AUA /fo?a fa-ma?e-ia/ kill ROV /va-mate-a/ kill KWAIO /fa?a-mae-a/ kill, extinguish GLB /ka-mate-a/ kill, extinguish; learn, memorize FIJ /vaka-mate-a/ put to death, kill; extinguish a light ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-m-atay/ means of killing (?) WMP: AKL /pa-mata'y/ slaughter, kill off, exterminate (in great numbers) SND /pa-mati/ the center of life (where a man or animal can be struck dead) OJ /pa-mati/ means (instrument) for killing, instrumental in killing; killer, slayer BM /po-matoy/ that with which one kills or wants to kill ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-m-atay/ (?) WMP: CEB /ka-ma'tay/ for people to be killing each other; mass death, killing on a vast scale NgD /ka-mata"y/ those that have died (plants, etc.) UMA /ka-m-ate/ death " /ka-m-ate-(k)i/ die from BAR /ka-mate/ time, place, or manner of death ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-m-atay-an/ be affected by a death WMP: TAG /ka-ma'tay-an/ death WBM /ke-metay-an/ death MAL /ke-mati-an a9in/ wind dying away DPB /ke-mate-n anak/ one who has lost a child through death TB /ha-mate-an/ place where one dies " /sahit ha-mate-an/ deadly sickness BI /ke-mati-an/ occurrence of death; suffer because of a death SAS /ke-mate-an/ paralyzed, numb; affected by a death TAE' /ka-mate-an/ be affected by a death; dead, the dying of something; time of dying; sensitive part of the body, when one is struck there by a blow; paralyzed, of the hand MAK /ka-mate-a9/ death; end of the lunar cycle ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */m-atay anak/ spirit dangerous to children WMP: [TAG /p'ati-anak/ goblin] MAL /mati-anak/ an evil spirit preying on newborn children WOL /mate-ana/ kind of fish eaten only by older people, because it is supposed to kill children (in accordance with its name) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */m-atay uRat/ paralyzed WMP: KAY /matey uhat/ paralyzed BAR /mate ua/ paralyzed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */na-aCay/ dead WMP: BON /na-te'y/ die; dead DAMPELAS /na-ate/ die; dead ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */pa-aCay/ kill F: KAV /patay/ die, dead TSOU /o-p-co'i/ kill KNB /mia-paca'i/ kill PR */pacay/ die AMIS /patay/ death; die; figuratively to be crushed and despair; go to extreme limits to do something WMP: ISG /p-um-ata'y/ kill " /pat-pata'y/ kill " /mag-pata'y/ fight fiercely to death " /patay-a'n/ kill, extinguish, put out GAD /patay-an/ kill BON /p-ate'y/ kill; extinguish or put out, as a fire or a light; turn off, as a radio or a motor " /p-om-atey/ be extremely painful (as a headache) IFG /p-um-ate/ he will kill " /mam-pate`/ killer, murderer IFGBt /patoy/ kill any kind of animal life including man " /p-um-atoy/ that with which one kills, as a bolo " /patoy-on/ that killed ILT /pasi/ kill ILK /pata`y/ death " /ag-pata'y/ faint, swoon, die away " /mama-pa'tay/ kill, commit murder or slaughter " /patay-e'n/ kill, slay, put to death, dispatch, murder, extinguish, put out; to stop (an engine) SBL(Bt) /pati-en/ kill PGS /pate'y/ death " /pate'y-en/ kill KAP /p-ate/ kill fight TAG /p-ata'y/ dead; dead person " /patay-patay/ dilatory, sluggish HAN /pa'tay/ dry, as of grass TBW(K) /patay/ dead " /patay-en/ kill BTK /patay/ dead, lifeless AKL /p-ata'y/ kill (person, animal); put out, turn off (a light); corpse, dead person " /pata'y-pa'tay/ ``dead'', poor, slim, inadequate, lousy HLG /p-ata'y/ dead person, dead plant or animal, corpse CEB /p-ata'y/ kill, slay; dead; for something to have been killed, deadened (as an engine); new moon; be head over heels in love " /pata'y sa utug/ girl used to satisfy one's sexual desires (lit. something to kill one's erection on) " /pata'ypa'tay/ do something intensely " /pam-ata'y/ something used to kill MMN /patay/ kill (cp. /bono?/ `kill with spear') MSK /patay/ corpse; deceased; kill; die (as people), deteriorate (as crops) MAR /p-atay/ death; die WBM /p-atey/ die TBL /h-atay/ kill BIL(K) /f-oti/ kill RD /na-patay/ dead " /patay-zun/ kill; death KEL /p-ate/ death of someone KIPUT /jaka? p-ata:y/ time of death, time when someone dies MIRI /f-atayh/ dead KAY /p-atey/ corpse; death " /pe-patey/ killing one another; killing in warfare KEN /p-atay/ death " /pe-patay/ fight to death SIANG /9om-p-atoy/ kill MURUNG /ta9an p-atoy/ kill NgD /p-ata"i/ dead person " /mam-pata"y/ kill MLG /f-a'ty/ corpse; death " /maha-fa`ty/ kill; put out a lamp MAL /denda pati/ fine for slaying; blood-money (Java) TB /p-ate/ complete, finished, come to an end (argument, process); dead LPG /p-ati/ kill SND /p-ati/ dying, someone's death; dead body, corpse " /tala9 pati/ lay down one's life for another " /pati-pate-n/ dead person OJ /p(a)-ati/ death JAV /pati/ death; dead; unusable " /pati-n/ having ceased to function " /pe-pati/ death MAD /pate/ something that is dead " /pate-n~a/ his death, his corpse BAL /pati/ death " /salah pati/ condemned to death; so much, very PS */pate/ die; kill PM */pate/ die; kill TNTB /pate/ time of death; death; go out from time to time (fire, light) " /ma-pate/ die " /maka-pate/ having died, having gone out (of fire) " /pate-an/ place of dying or killing GOR /pate/ corpse BM /p-atoy/ kill; extinguish a fire or light; bring flowing water to a standstill " /moko-patoy/ able to kill DAMPELAS /p-ate/ kill UMA /p-ate-hi/ kill BAR /mpate(-n~a)/ the dead branches on trees " /ka-pate/ time, place, or manner of death " /mem-pate/ die in throngs TAE' /p-ate-i/ kill MDR /p-ate-i/ kill ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-p-atay-an/ end or death of something (?) WMP: TB /ha-pate-an/ the end of a matter, agreement BM /ko-patoy-an/ come to die, place or time in which one is overcome by death ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-p-atay-en/ death (?) WMP: HLG /ka-pata'y-un/ death OJ /ka-pati/ death (concrete case of dying) JAV /ke-pati-n/ suffer loss through death; (of sleep) deep, sound MAD /ke-patey-an/ death ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */p-in-atay/ was killed WMP: KEL /p-in-ate/ was killed OJ /p-in-ati/ kill, mortify, cause to be like dead BM /p-in-atoy/ killed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */patay-en/ be killed WMP: ILK /patay-e'n/ kill, slay, put to death BM /patoy-on/ he must or will die ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */pa-p-aCay/ kill F: SAR /pa-pa-paci/ kill PR */pa-pacay/ kill (2) */pa-p-atay/ kill WMP: ILK /ag-pa-pata'y/ commit suicide, take one's own life " /mama-pa'tay/ kill SML /pa-patay/ kill KEL /pe-p-ate/ kill each other TB /pa-pate-hon/ bring to an end, extinguish SAN /pa-pate/ death " /ka-pa-pate/ hour of death TNTB /pa-pate/ death, time of dying or killing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa-p-atay-an/ kill WMP: ATTA /pa-patay-an/ kill ISG /pa-patay-a_n/ place in the axilla of a hog through which its heart is pierced, when slaughtering hogs TAE' /pa-p-ate-an/ kill " /to pa-p-ate-an/ murderer ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */in-atay/ dead WMP: ATTA /n-atay/ dead ISG /n-ata'y/ died, dead ITW /n-ata'y/ dead GAD /n-atay/ dead BON /n-ate'y/ die; dead KAN /n-ate'y/ died, departed, deceased, expired, gone out IFG /n-ate'/ he/she died ILK /n-ata'y/ dead, defunct, extinct, extinguished, indifferent, stopped SBL(Bt) /n-ati/ dead LD /in-ate/ was killed KEL /n-ate/ was killed SAN /tau n-ate/ dead person GOR /il-ate/ dead CMP: SOB /n-ate/ 2sg, 3sg, and 3pl form of /mate/ `die' ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */m-in-atay/ one who has died, dead person WMP: ILK /m-in-ata'y/ dead (person). Considered as being in somebody's charge WBM /m-in-atey/ dead person MAR /m-i-a-tay so lawas/ paralysis BM /m-in-atoy/ died; gone out (fire, light) (8) */m-in-ate/ one who has died, dead person OC: RAL /m-in-at/ death DY /m-in-at/ corpse, dead body; dead ROV /m-in-ate/ death ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */ma-m-atay/ as if dead? WMP: ITW /ma-mata'y/ kill PGS /ma-mate'y/ butcher HAN /ma-mata'y/ die RD /ma-matay/ kill NgD /ma-mata"y/ as if dying, half to death (of working hard, etc.) SAN /ma-mate/ kill BGG /ma-mate-kon/ kill CMP: ROTI /ma-mate/ looking half dead; deathly sick ERAI /ma-mate/ who dies; going to die YMD /ma-mate/ dead (8) */ma-mate/ (?) OC: GLB /ma-mate/ immortal, imperishable, inextinguishable MAO /ma-mate/ distressed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */m-atay m-atay/ die in throngs; be on the verge of death WMP: TB /mate mate na/ almost dead OJ /a-mati mati/ kill (in general, not in a particular case), commit the crime of killing MAK /mate mate/ die in throngs (in times of epidemic); total (with verbs) CMP: ROTI /mate mate/ absolute, thorough, complete BURU /mata mata/ deadly SHWNG: BULI /mat-mat/ dead body; corpse OC: MANAM /mate mate/ to die (iterative), to suffer MOTU /mase mase/ used as an intensive with /hebiri/ (sit or stand close together), /hesede/ (crowded, jostle, etc.) NGG /mate mate/ to overcome SA'A /mae-mae/ die, be ill, become unconscious ARS /mae-mae/ very weak, wasting; infirmity, weakness LNW /m3r-m3r/ be faint; to faint, be half-hearted FIJ /mate mate/ sickly REN /mate mate/ weak, exhausted, as from sickness or grief; be nearly out, as a fire MAO /mate mate/ die or be taken or caught in numbers; sickly; shallow, failing, of streams NOTE: Also BON_/ete'y/ `death', /pa'tay/ `any sacrifice performed on behalf of the village', AKL_/ka-ma'tay-on/ `death', MGG_/mate/ `the late, the deceased', NGA_/mate/ `die; dead; the deceased; kill, slay', LAM_/mate'-n/ `already dead, not moving any more', FOR_/matta/ `die; dead; go out (fire, light)', KOI_/matata/ `corpse', MSH_/mij/ `dead; numb; death', NIUE_/mase/ `die'. Since all of the forms that Dempwolff compared contain a reflex either of */p-/ or of */m-/, he reconstructed both */patay/ and */matay/ `die, dead'. However, rather than list these reconstructions with the relevant supporting evidence separately, as was his practice with doublets, he posited paired etyma */patay/, */matay/ at the head of a single mixed comparison, with an empty cross-reference to */matay/. The explanation for this treatment is given in Dempwolff (1934:sect. 47e), where it is suggested that */matay/ is derived from */patay/ by nasal substitution, but is sufficiently widespread (being found in `Indonesian', `Melanesian' and Polynesian languages) to require a separate reconstruction. This was perhaps the closest Dempwolff came to the reconstruction of morphology. The evidence now available shows that the unaffixed PAN base in question was */aCay/. Dempwolff's */patay/ and */matay/ can most convincingly be derived from */pa-aCay/ `kill' (with causative */pa-/) and */ma-aCay/ `dead' (with stative */ma-/). That the base began with a vowel rather than */q-/ is clear from such reflexes as BUN_/atad_/ `kill', TBW(K)_/patay/ `dead', MOKEN_/matay/ `die; dead', MUNA_/mate/ `die; dead', LOU_/mat/ `die; dead', and TON_/mate/ `die; dead'. The merger of */q-/ and zero in many attested languages would have led to homophony between reflexes of PAN_*/aCay/ `death' and */qaCay/ `liver', both of which figured in numerous expressions relating to the emotions. Possibly to avoid such potentially awkward homophony the unaffixed base was lost in the great majority of languages, leaving reflexes of */pa-aCay/ and */ma-aCay/ as effective secondary base forms for further morphological elaboration. Thus, next to PAN_*/pa-aCay/ and PMP_*/pa-atay/ `kill' there is a priori evidence for e.g. PMP_*/pa(ka)-m-atay/ `kill' and PWMP_*/ka-m-atay-an/ `affected by a death', where the outer affixation evidently was added to an already prefixed base. The alternative hypothesis, that forms such as BUN_/atad_/ `kill', DGT_/ate"/ `die; dead; death' or KEL_/ate/ are products of analogical back-formation from a base */paCay/ or */maCay/ is more difficult to maintain in view of the fairly clear (though by no means universal) association of reflexes of the former with the causative `kill' and of reflexes of the latter with the stative `dead'. Partly by analogy with */ma-qudip/ `living, alive', I have attributed all reflexes that Dempwolff would have assigned to */matay/ to PAN_*/ma-aCay/, PMP_*/ma-atay/, PCEMP_*/matay/, POC_*/mate/. It is possible that these forms actually represent a conflation of */ma-aCay/ `dead' (stative) and */um-aCay/ `die' (active), since the initial vowel in reflexes of */in-atay/ generally disappeared even though it was retained in most other forms, and we would expect a parallel treatment of the initial vowel of */um-atay/. Nonetheless, pairs such as KEL_/mate/ `die; dead', /in-ate/ `killed' suggest that the former does contain a reflex of */ma-/ rather than */um-/. The same apparently must be assumed in PMP_*/m-in-atay/ `person who has died, corpse' (= */m-in-a-atay/, with contraction of the sequence of like vowels), despite the fact that the co-occurrence of */ma-/ `stative' and */-in-/ `perfective' is otherwise rare. Because of occasional ambiguities in the morphology it is possible that I have posited some morphologically complex forms of */aCay/ and its reflexes which are in reality products of convergent innovation. Examples include */m-atay-an/ `lose someone through death', */pa9-m-atay/ `means of killing(?)', */ka-p-atay-an/ `end of death of something(?)' and */ka-p-atay-en/ `death(?)'. As implied in passing above, it appears likely that the prefix of PAN_*/ma-aCay/ was reinterpreted as part of the stem in PCEMP_*/matay/. The only known counterevidence to this claim is BIMA_/h-ade/ `kill, extinguish a fire' and SOB_/n-ate/ `2sg, 3sg and 3pl form of /m-ate/ `die'. Finally, although Dempwolff reconstructed both */patay/ and */matay/ with the meaning `die, dead' it is clear from the data assembled here that by at least PMP times a far richer complex of meanings was associated with */atay/, whether alone, affixed, or in combination with various other free morphemes. These meanings included not only `death', `dead', `die', `kill', and `corpse' but also the following more figurative senses: 1. `sick' (ILK, M-A, EDDY, LAU, SA'A, TRUK, PUL, WOLEAI, FIJ, MAO), 2. `tired, tired of something' (ILK, M-A, LAU, GLB, TON), 3. `faint, lose consciousness; unconscious' (ILK, ASI, BURU, NMB, NG, LAU, KWAIO, SA'A, AA, ARS, GLB, TRUK, MOTA, LNW, TON, REN, RAR, MAO, HWN), 4. `(in conjunction with */qalejaw/ or */waRi/ `sun' and */bulan/ `moon') solar or lunar eclipse' (BUN, MGG, KMB, ROTI, LETI, LAU, SA'A, ARS, GLB, TON), 5. `new moon' (CEB, TB, DPB, MAK, REN), 6. `go out, become extinguished, of a torch or fire' (ISG, BON, ILK, TB, BI, NIAS, BM, PAL, BIMA, MGG, TET, RAL, KIL, NGG, KWAIO, GLB, TRUK, FIJ, REN, RAR, MAO), 7. `overgrown or otherwise blocked, of a path' (BI, TB, DPB, KEI), 8. `paralyzed, of the limbs' (KAY, DPB, NIAS, SAS, BAR, TAE', MAK, WOL, PAL, NMB, NGG, LAU, SA'A, ARS, GLB, MSH, TRUK, PUL, TON, REN, KPA, NUK), 9. `numb, asleep, of the limbs' (MLG, BI, SAS, TAE', PAL, SIKA, RAL, NGG, LAU, SA'A, AA, ARS, MSH, LNW, NUK, RAR), 10. `die down (of wind)' (MAL, TB, BI, BAR, MAK, KEI, BURU, TON), 11. `waterless, of springs or rivers' (BI, OJ, BM?, RAR, MAO), 12. `dry up, of plants' (HAN, HLG, NgD, NIAS, TET, NGG, NUK, RAR, SAM), 13. `beaten in a game' (MLG, MAK, MGG, ROTI, KEI, ASI?, GLB, RAR), 14. `fixed, of a price' (MAL, BI, ROTI), 15. `terminate a matter, reach an agreement' (TB, MAK, YMD, BURU, MAO), 16. `disaster, misfortune' (TAE', RAR, MAO, HWN), 17. `intensive, superlative: very, greatly; completely, thoroughly' (CEB, BAL, ROTI, SOB?, TANGGA, RAL, MOTU, NGG, KWAIO), 18. `desire intensely, be deeply in love' (CEB, MLG, GED, NMB, GLB, TON, NIUE, RAR, MAO, HWN). To these we can add for PWMP: 19. `limp, of the penis' (CEB, MENT), 20. `fatal spot on the body' (ISG, CEB, SND), 21. `curse; oath; exclamation' (CEB, BKL, TB, TNTB), and for PCEMP 22. `becalmed, of the sea' (ROTI, KEI, AA, ARS, GLB, RAR). For convenience I have associated all of these meanings with PMP_*/ma-atay/. It is, moreover, likely that some form of */aCay/ was found in a PMP expression meaning `commit suicide' (ILK, AKL, CEB, KIP, SAS, BGG, REN), and in a PWMP expression meaning `die in childbirth' (BI, JAV, SAS, BAR, TAE'). The latter may have been the expression I have reconstructed here as */m-atay anak/, although borrowing from Malay (e.g. TAG_/pa'ti-anak/) has complicated the issue. By contrast, the common practice of using a reflex of */aCay/ to refer to machinery which has stopped moving (stopped watch or clock, dead engine, etc.) clearly is convergent. Needless to say, many of these usages express universal tendencies. #long (3) */adaduq/ long (of objects) dbl. */anaduq/ WMP: ISG /adaddu/ long (of objects) LgA /dado?/ long (of objects) NOTE: Also SAI_/?inaro?/ `long (objects)', PAI_/lad.uq/ `be long (spatially)', CHM_/anakko?/ `long'. #plant, #%Pipturus argenteus% (2) */adamay/ a plant: %Pipturus argenteus% WMP: CEB /handa-la'may/ small tree: %Pipturus argenteus%. The white part of its bark is scraped and placed over dislocated bones to prevent swelling; the leaves are applied to eczemas MAR /aramai/ hibiscus sp.: %Pipturus arborescens% CMP: MGG /sama/ a tree: %Pipturus argenteus% NGA /zama/ kind of small tree, the bark of which is used for cordage and mail (armor) NOTE: SND_/haramay/ `an urticacea: %Boehmeria nivea%' may also be cognate. If so, */adamay/ must be changed to */qadamay/. The essence of this comparison appears in Verheijen_(1984). #millipede (3) */andap/ phosphorescent millipede WMP: ITB /andap/ idea of emitting light; sp. of fungus " /om-andap/ to flare or flicker, emit light DGT /a'ndep/ species of plant (shines in the dark) ILK /anda'p/ opalescence, luminescence, phosphorescence PGS /andap/ to flicker TAG /anda'p/ twinkling (of light); spurt of low flame before extinction NgD /andap/ small brown insect, similar in shape to a millipede; when touched it phosphoresces brightly TAE' /anda?/ kind of phosphorescent millipede BGS /anre?/ kind of phosphorescent millipede NOTE: Also SAS_/andam andam/ `glowworm'. None of the known Philippine reflexes refers specifically to a phosphorescent millipede, but two considerations favor the gloss I have given. First, the semantic reflexes in Ngaju Dayak and the South Sulawesi languages agree closely in referring to such an insect. Second, on the whole semantic extensions proceed by generalizing properites of the concrete objects of experience rather than by concretizing a priori general properties. I thus consider it unlikely that */andap/ referred to phosphorescence as such. It is probable that some still undeterminded morpheme which was marked by the */qali/kali-/ prefix also meant `luminous millipede' (BJR_/haliman~ar/ `luminous millipede', MAL_/kelemayar/ `luminous millipede', KB_/katikeran/ `phosphorescent millipede', TB_/hatitioran/ `phosphorescent millipede', AMB_/halimontan/ `phosphorescent light of luminous millipede or toadstool', MAL (Jak.)_/kalimayah/ `luminous millipede', TAE'_/anda? kalamoyan/ `phosphorescent millipede'). #think, #understand, #ponder (2) */a(n)dem/ think, brood over WMP: SAS /arem/ think, understand OC: NGG /ando/ think, understand SA'A /aro/ to brood (cited only in the English index) NOTE: With root */-dem/ `think, ponder, brood, remember'. #chest (3) */adep/ chest WMP: DPB /adep/ breast TB /adop/ female breast (polite word used by young women) TAE' /ara?/ chest, breast MDR /are?/ belly NOTE: Mills_(1975:615) posits PSS_*/ar+[p?]/ `chest, belly (i.e. front of the body)'. As he points out, this item may be equivalent to Dempwolff's */qadep/ `front'. #bathing (3) */andi?/ bathing (3) */um-andi?/ to bathe (oneself) WMP: IBAN /mandi?/ bath, bathe MAL /mandi/ bathing. Etymologically of bathing in water, e.g. in a river like a poor person, -- in contrast to having water poured over oneself (/siram/), as a person in a bath-house LPG /mandi/ bathe (intr.) SND /mandi/ bathe, wash oneself OJ /mand.i/ bathe SAS /mandi?/ bathe oneself, wash (intr.) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa-andi?/ to bathe (someone) WMP: SML /pandi/ bathe IBAN /pandi?/ bathing, bathe IBAN /ai pandi?/ bathing place, bathing pool SAS /pandi?/ bathe, wash; specifically, wash the body (trans.) NOTE: Also NgD_/andoi/ `bathe', NgD_/ka-panduy-an/ `bathing place', MLG_/m-a`ndro/ `bathe', MLG_/f-andro`-ana/ `the Malagasy annual festival, so called because bathing is one of the chief points in its observance; a bath'. Dempwolff (1938) posited */anduy/, but the independent testimony of Iban and Sasak supports */-?/. #compete, #confront (contest) (3) */adu/ compete, confront in a contest WMP: MAR /ado/ threaten, as a piece in chess IBAN /adu/ arbitrate, arrange, settle, adjust; complaint, appeal MAL /adu/ pitting; matching one against the other; getting up a contest. Of any trial of strength or skill, or even of smartness and looks ACH /adu/ compete KB /adu/ competition, rivalry TB /mar-adu/ compete with SND /adu/ come into contact with one another (as the noses or foreheads of two persons JAV /adu/ in contact, in confrontation BAL /adu/ fighting, duel, quarrel SAS /adu/ compete for something, as in cockfights or races ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */9-adu/ compete, confront in a contest WMP: KB /9-adu/ complain KB /9-adu-ken/ complain about someone SND /9-adu/ fight, confront, argue OJ /a9-adu/ put face-to-face, bring into contact, make clash, have fight, pit against; to vie in, measure " /a9-adu-adu/ incite BAL /9-adu/ to fight SAS /9-adu/ compete with others NOTE: Also TAG_/a'ro/ `prodding test of strength of textiles', JAV_/ad.u/ `sue, bring legal action against', BM_/adu/ `accusation, charge' (Malay loan). Many of the forms cited here probably are Malay loans, and the antiquity of the etymon is thus very much in doubt. #ancestor (2) */andu9/ ancestors WMP: MIN /ando9/ ancestor; grandfather CMP: MGG /andu9/ ancestors #exclamation of #pain, #distress (2) */aduq/ exclamation of pain, distress, etc. WMP: MSK /ado?/ shout to the spirits (as is the custom of a shaman) BJR /aduh/ exclamation of pain, surprise, etc. IBAN /adoh/ exclamation of pain or surprise, /adih/; cry to a child to sooth it MAL /adoh/ oh! as an interjection of grief or pain KB /adu/ complain SND /aduh/ an exclamation of pain or grief' oh! ouch! alas! OJ /ad.uh/ an exclamation of emotion (pain, surprise, etc.) JAV /ad.uh/ exclamation of pain, sorrow, joy BAL /ad.uh/ alas, oh! (pain, grief); address to superiors; illness, groaning CMP: KMB /aru'/ exclamation of pain, disappointment, astonishment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-aduq/ to exclaim in pain, distress, etc. WMP: KB /9-adu-ken/ complain about someone JAV /9-ad. uh/ to exclaim in pain, etc. NOTE: Also TAG_/aro'y/ `pleased or complimentary exclamation', HAN_/adu'g/ `ow! ouch! An exclamation of sudden pain similar to /adi'g/', AKL_/ado'y/ `oh darn! (expression of frustration)', TIR_/adoy/ `exclamation of pain', OJ_/ad.u/, /ad.u_/ `an exclamation of emotion', TAE'_/alu/ `exclamation of lamentation, regret, or disappointment', KEI_/ado_/ `exclamation of surprise or compassion'. #consider, #think (3) */agam/ consider, think WMP: IBAN /agam/ consider, think, reckon that TB /agam/ think, intend NOTE: Dempwolff (1938) also included TAG_/a'gam-a'gam/ `retrospection; misgiving, foreboding', but the cognation of this form is very doubtful. Although PWMP_*/agam/ is only weakly supported it is difficult to explain the known reflexes through an appeal to borrowing, since a reflex has not been reported in Malay. #hold, #grip (3) */agem/\1 hold, grip WMP: BIN /agem/ hand MATU /agem/ hand SEBOP /agem/ hand MAD /agem/ hold BAL /agem/ hold NOTE: With root */-gem/ `grasp, grip'. HLG_/a'gum/ `obtain, attain, achieve, possess' and related forms in other Philippine languages are assumed to derive from */agem/ `use, get use from' (Blust_1980). #use (3) */agem/\2 use, get use from WMP: CEB /a'gum/ get full use out of some benefit someone bestows on one SUB (Churchill_1913) /agom/ to enjoy JAV /di-agem/ used, made use of #and, #also (2) */agu/ and, also WMP: MAR /ago/ and, also CMP: MGG /agu/ and, more, yet more, still RMB /agu/ and, with, together with NOTE: Also KMB_/a`9u/ `and, with'. #there (anaphoric or relative particle) (8) */ai/ anaphoric or relative particle: there, previously mentioned place OC: RAL /ai/ it, sometimes used as a relative pronoun MOTU /ai/ of time or place; in, at, when, during. May be used after single words or clauses M-A /-ai/ suffix: there, away; place where or whither ARS /ai/ there, that place TON /ai/ pronominal adverb: there, in it, on it, because of it, etc.; or (in a relative sense) where, in which, on which, because of which, etc. NIUE /ai/ a particle used in the following ways: 1. after verbs to show that what has happened, or is to happen, is the result, consequence, or intention of what has gone before, 2. to indicate a relative clause, frequently giving a verb a passive sense, 3. with the prepositions /i/ and /aki/ to refer to a thing or place already mentioned SAM /ai/ anaphoric and relative particle: there, why (e.g. `that was the reason /why/ he came'), herein, hereby NAN /ai/ anaphoric pronoun REN /ai/ common anaphoric particle usually closing a verb phrase and liking it to a preceding noun, often with meaning there, thereby, thus, at, in, it, him, her NUK /ai/ predicate complement RAR /ai/ particle used after a verb to denote cause, means, etc. of event, or to connect an intransitive verb with a transitive verb MAO /ai/ not generally to be translated by any equivalent English word, but used in the following cases: 1. in relative clauses, where the relative in English is governed by a verb or preposition, 2. in clauses expressing the /reason/ for which anything is done, or the /object/ in view in doing it, 3. in clauses marking the time or place of an action or event, 4. with a verb or adjective denoting an action or state consequent upon some previous action, 5. denoting present habitual condition or action, 6. with reference to something previously mentioned HWN /ai/ linking or anaphoric particle. Every /ai/ in Hawaiian has an antecedent, usually expressed, but sometimes understood (Elbert and Pukui 1979:96) NOTE: Also LAU_/?ai/ `which (relative pronoun)', ROT_/e/ `adverb, therein, therefrom, because of it, etc. Though generally a quasi-suffix, it is used occasionally in a more independent position'. There is a history of discussion of this form in the literature, with the following milestones: (1) Pawley (1972:77) reconstructed Proto-Eastern Oceanic_*/(q)i-ai/ `previously mentioned place; there, thereat', adding that this form is `Probably analyzable into relational preposition ... and */ai/ `there, previously mentioned place''; (2) Chapin (1974) provided an extensive discussion of Proto-Polynesian_*/ai/, (3) Pawley (1978:37) showed that many of the AN languages of New Guinea reflect */-iai/ `a postposition marking locative or general relation', and noted that `Evidently, in New Guinea Oceanic the locative pronoun */ai/ was reanalyzed as a post-nominal particle and its function was generalised to that of a locative case marker. Further study is needed to determine the precise distribution of this putative innovation'; (4) most recently Ross (1988:347ff) has documented the distribution of */-iai/ among most languages of the Papuan Tip cluster, several branches of the North New Guinea cluster, and in Torau and Mono-Alu of the Meso-Melanesian cluster. He argues that its use as a postposition in the latter two languages probably is historically independent from the similar usage in the AN languages of New Guinea, and characterized its `most usual function in Oceanic languages' as that of an `oblique proform'. #exclamation of #surprise, #incredulity (2) */ai/\2 interjection, exclamation of surprise, incredulity, etc. F: ATY /ai/ exclamation PAI /ai/ exclamation: alas! oh my! ITB /ay/ an expression of surprise, awe and the like WMP: ISG /ay/ an interjection: ah! KAN /ay-?ay/ ah! ho! what a pickle you are in! Interjection denoting wonder or surprise IFG /ay/ exclamation to arouse someone's attention ILK /ay/ an interjection: ah! " /ay-a'y/ woe to PGS /ay/ interjection expressing hesitation, surprise, or consternation TAG /ay/ interjection: ay! alas! BKL /ay/ ah (exclamation) AKL /ay/ interjection: my! oh! what? (shock, surprise) MAR /ai-?ai/ exclamation of disdain or disbelief KEL /ai/ cry of surprise, shock or dismay MUK /ay/ exclamation, oh! MAL /ai/ interjection expressive of interest and approval NIAS /ai/ interjection: hey! REJ /ai-ai/ ejaculation of astonishment or appreciation JAV /ai/ exclamation of incredulity or deprecation BM /ai/ exclamation: hey! GOR /a:yi/ exclamation, as on seeing a snake CMP: BIMA /ai/ exclamation NGA /ai/ wail and lament; complain KMB /ai/ exclamation OC: MMb /ai/ hey! KIL /ai/ oh no! CH /ai/ exclamation of surprise NGG /ai/ exclamation of surprise SA'A /ai/ exclamation of dissent, disapproval or surprise NOTE: Also ITB_/ayyih/ `exclamation of satisfaction', CEB_/aha'y/ `exclamation expressing utter tiredness or frustration', IBAN_/aih/ `interjection of annoyance, mockery, etc.', MAL_/ahi/ `interjection to invite attention', NIAS_/hai-hai/ `interjection: oh! oh!, MGG_/ae'/ `exclamation', NGG_/ae/ `exclamation of surprise, or deprecatory'. #copulate; #sexual #intercourse (8) */ait/ copulate; copulation, sexual intercourse OC: GED /ai/ have sexual intercourse (also used in respect to animals) MMb /-ye/ have sexual intercourse M-A /aiti/ copulate (of humans) FIJ /cai/ have sexual intercourse with: trans. /cai-ta'/ MAO /ai/ lie with a female; copulate, of both sexes " /ai-tia/ copulate with " /ai-ta9a/ progeny, descendants HWN /ai/ coition; to have sexual relations NOTE: Also IBAN_/ait/ `desire, long for, crave, covet', LOU_/aIt/ (< */aetV/) `copulate, have sexual intercourse', GED_/yait/ `fornication'. #name (2) */ajan/ name dbl. */najan/, */9ajan/ WMP: [ISG /na'xan/ who?, what? (cp. /9a'xan/ `name, appellation')] TBW(K) /aran/ name [MbKC /9adan/ name; what?] MSK /aran/ name BELAIT /adin/ name BUKAT /aran/ name LAHANAN /aran/ name TABOYAN /aran/ name UJ /ara/ name NgD /ara/ name MALOH /asan/ name SGH /adun/ name OJ /aran/ name JAV /aran/ personal name; name, (what something is) called or known as BAL /adan/ name, appellation; give a name SAS /aran/ name OC: SOBEI /asa-/ name TARPIA /taya-/ (< M) name SEI /axa-/ name KAIRIRU /asa-/ name MANAM /ara-/ name MOTU /lada-/ name MEKEO /aka-/ name RORO /ata-/ name TIGAK /asa-n/ name TANGA /asa/ name, either personal or common; who? TABAR /asa-/ name MENDAK /asa-/ name LABEL /asa/ what? BANONI /vasa9a/ name NGG /aha/ name " /ahei/ (< */asa-i/) who?; whoever, anyone, he who LAU /sata/ name; namesake; friend KWAIO /lata/ name " /lata-na/ name; reputation SA'A /sata/ name AA /rata-i/ name " /rata-na/ name ARS /ata/ name " /atei/ (< */asa-i/) who; interrogative pronoun, but not indefinite like MOTA_/isei/ GLB /ara/ name, title, noun " /are/ (< */asa-i/) who, whom, that, which, what, whoever MSH /a_t/ name; reputation PON /ahd/ name; noun MOK /ad/ name; reputation JAWE /yat/ name ROT /asa/ name; reputation, honor FIJ /yaca/ name ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */pa(ka)-ajan/ to name, give a name to WMP: SAS /p-aran/ give someone a name OC: FIJ /vaka-yaca-na/ to name NOTE: Also SML_/oon/ `name', JAR_/anan/ `name', SAS_/ara/ `name', SAN_/are9/ `name', BANTIK_/ade9/ `name', BGS_/ase9/ `name', MAK_/are9/ `name', NMB_/ase/ `name'. UJ_/ara/ appears to have lost the final nasal through analogical back-formation by reinterpretation of /-n/ as `3sg. possessor' (cp. /mata-n/ `his/her eye'). The same presumably is of true of NgD, SAS_/ara/, although the facts in these cases are less well known. Finally, the use of the word for `name' as an interrogative marker, either `who?' (extension of its use as a marker of personal names), or `what?' (extension of its use as a marker of common names) has a thin but widespread distribution in Austronesian languages, including the northern and southern Philippines, New Ireland, the Solomon Islands and portions of Micronesia. I assume that these usages are convergent developments. #exclamation, #pain, #surprise (3) */ajiq/ exclamation of pain or surprise WMP: PGS /agi'/ ouch! IBAN /adih/ exclamation of pain or surprise NOTE: Also TIR_/adey/ `exclamation of pain', MAL_/adoh/, /aduh/ `oh! as an interjection of grief or pain'. Given their expressive character some or all of these items could be products of convergence. #cackle, #laughter (2) */akak/ cackling laughter WMP: BKL /a'ka'k/ to quack BAL /akak/ laugh loudly CMP: MGG /ahak/ imitation of the sound of a cough NOTE: Also HAN_/akha'k/ `expectoration of catarrhal phlegm', CEB_/aka?ak/ `make a crackling sound, loud creaking sound'. With root */-kak/ `cackle, laugh loudly'. #root (2) */akaR/ root dsj. */wakaR/ WMP: LBIS /akaw/ vine, creeper MURIK /akah/ vines, creepers, aerial roots UJ /akah/ vines, creepers, exclusive of rattan MAL /akar/ root; root-fibre; creeping or climbing plant; liana KB /akar/ very young jungle (must have earlier referred to creepers) BAL /akah/ root, tree root SAS /akar/ root OC: TON /aka/ root SAM /a?a/ root NAN /aka/ root REN /aka/ root MAO /aka/ long and thin roots of trees or plants; vine of any climbing plant NOTE: Also SAS_/akah/ `root'. #lift, #raise, #pick up (3) */a9kat/ lift, raise, pick up WMP: KAN /a9ka't/ the place from where it is fetched, taken, brought (money, camotes, wood, etc.) PGS /a9ka't/ buy wholesale TAG /a9ka't/ consignment of merchandise AKL /a'9kat/ get on credit CEB /a9ka't/ take something for resale on credit MAR /akat/ transport, move MLG /a'katra/ ascent, upward progress MAL /a9kat/ lifting up; (fig.) adoption ACH /a9kat/ lift, raise, pick or take up KB /r-a9kat/ go out on an expedition or raid DPB /pe9-a9kat/ way of leaping MENT /aka't/ lift, raise (Morris 1900) " /masi-akkat/ lift (Pagai, Sipora, southern Siberut - Pampus 1993) REJ /akeut/ adopted; senior, older SND /a9kat/ lift it up! (imperative) " /m-a9kat/ depart on a trip OJ /a9kat/ departure, getting up " /m-a9kat/ get up, rise, set out, depart JAV /9-a9kat-(i)/ lift, raise BAL /a9kat/ set off, march to war, depart SAS /a9kat/ lift up, raise; appoint to a position (by those higher up) BM /a9kat/ expression of congratulations BAR /me-a9ka/ stand up, rise up TAE' /a9ka?/ pick up, lift up, raise up; to praise, exalt; promote to (an office or position) MAK /a9ka?/ lifting, raising WOL /a9ka/ lift up; fly up (many birds), run away (many people) " /a9kat-aka/ hold in high esteem, have a high regard for ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-a9kat/ (?) WMP: REJ /k-akeut/ lift, adopt, take up (imperative) JAV /k-a9kat/ movable, portable ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-a9kat/ lift, raise, carry WMP: ITW /ma9-akka't/ carry KB /9-a9kat/ lift up, raise DPB /me9-a9kat/ leap; lift, raise REJ /me9-akeut/ adopt SND /9-a9kat/ open festivities; lift, raise; appoint BAL /9-a9kat/ set off, march to war, depart BAR /ma9-a9kat-aka/ lift, raise up high MAK /a99-a9ka?/ lift up, lift and carry away ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-a9kat-a9kat/ lift, elevate WMP: MAL /me9-a9kat-a9kat/ to praise up; to flatter DPB /me9-a9kat-9-a9kat/ leap, spring, rise on one's toes OJ /a9-a9kat-a9kat/ lift, elevate; send off, make depart; take up one's belongings (weapons, baggage) in order to depart ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */maR-a9kat/ lift, raise, pick up WMP: ISG /max-akka_t/ lift a bow net that has been set MLG /mi-a`katra/ ascend, go up, mount up MAL /ber-a9kat/ travel with a retinue, to journey (of a prince) SAS /mer-a9kat/ to marry BAR /mo-a9ka/ lift up, as something that has been lying flat but which the heat of the sun has caused to curl ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa-a9kat/ (?) WMP: MAL /p-a9kat/ tier; stage; floor; grade; rank; school-standard SND /p-a9kat/ rank, grade MAK /pa-a9ka?/ bearer, carrier ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-a9kat/ act of lifting or raising WMP: KB /pe9-a9kat/ help SND /pa9-a9kat/ introduction, beginning (as of a feast) JAV /pa9-a9kat/ act or way of raising MAK /pa9a9-a9ka?/ the lifting, raising ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */taR-a9kat/ lift, raise, pick up WMP: BI /ter-a9kat/ raised, lifted MAK /tar-a9ka?/ be lifted or raised (cp. BI_/ter-a9kat/) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */a9kat-an/ lift, raise up WMP: ISG /akkat-a'n/ to lift, as a load that has to be carried; remove a pot from the fire, etc. " /akkat-a_n/ help lift up a load " /a9kat-a_n/ the place where loads are lifted up, where bow nets have been set MAL /a9kat-an/ expedition; generation (same age group) JAV /a9kat-an/ act or way of lifting; a load TAE' /a9kar-an/ deliverance from worry and disaster MAK /a9kakk-a9/ lift or raise something for someone ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */a9kat a9kat/ (?) WMP: MAL /a9kat-a9kat/ gait, bearing WOL /a9ka-a9ka/ lift and keep up, hold up, keep aloft NOTE: Also DGT_/egkat/ `stand up, lift up, get up from a sitting position', KAN_/e9ka't/ `the place from where it is fetched, taken, brought (money, camotes, wood, etc.)', LAUJE_/le9kat/ `depart', DONDO_/bo9kat/ `depart', SA'A_/aka/ `pull out (as teeth); emerge (as a crab from its den)'. I assume that MGG_/a9kak/ `lift, raise; depart', RMB_/a9kak/ `depart, go; lift, raise' are irregularly altered loans from Malay. #cover, #lid, #seal (3) */a9keb/ covering, lid WMP: AKL /a'9kob/ seal, filling, joiner, gap-filler CEB /a9ku'b/ covering over the opening of a small boat, the analogue of a deck on large boats; fill something in to cover up a deficiency BAL /a9keb/ cover(ing), lid, bed-spread, table-cloth NOTE: With root */-keb/ `cover'. The Bisayan forms may contain */-kub/ `cover' (cp. BM_/a9kub/ `to cover', where /u/ can come only from */u/). #cry, #monkey, #chatter (2) */akerahaq/ cry of a monkey WMP: TAG /akla'ha?/ cry of monkeys MAR /kera?/ sound made by the monkey IBAN /kerah-kerah/ chattering CMP: MGG /kera/ call, cry of a monkey NGA /kera/ shrill cry of monkeys NOTE: IBAN_/kerah-kerah/ was earlier assigned to */keraq/ `chattering of monkeys' (Blust_1970: no. 207). #bite (2) */a(9)kit/ bite WMP: AKL /a'9kit/ to bite, nip NgD /p-a9kit/ biting, to bite (as a dog) CMP: MGG /akit/ to bite NOTE: Also BIL(K)_/aket/, BIL(S)_/maket/, MOK_/mokot/ `to bite'. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */um-a(9)kit/ to bite WMP: DUSUN MALANG /ma9kit/ to bite CMP: TET /makkit/ to bite #1sg. actor, #I (1) */aku/ 1sg. actor: I F: PATY */-aku/ I ATY /s-aku/ primary pronoun I TAR /y-aku/ emphatic form of the 1sg. personal pronoun; always requires a particle (/ka/ or /o/) in order to be united with the predicate of which it is the subject SAI /y-ako/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I PAZ /y-aku/ 1sg. topic and accusative pronoun: I, me KAV /iku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I THAO /y-aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TSOU /na-?o/ I SAR /il_-aku/ I PR */-ako/ I RUK (Budai) /ko-ako'/ I BUN /d_aku/ me AMIS /k-ako/ 1sg. personal pronoun: I WMP: ITB /ako/ I IVT /ako/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SBLBt /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I KAP /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TAG /ako'/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BKL /ako'/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I HAN /aku'/ I (pronoun) CEB /aku'/ I, me AKL /ako'/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I HLG /aku'/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TBW(A) /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BTK /ako'/ I (pronoun) MSK /aku/ 1sg. topic pronoun: I MAR /ako/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TBL /O?uh/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TAO /akuh/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SML /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I YAKAN /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BANGGI /ou/ 1sg. focused actor pronoun: I TM /aku/ 1sg. topic and theme pronoun: I LB /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BB /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (coarse, or non-respect form) IDA'AN /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I KEL /u-ih/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me LgLabid /akeu?/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me LgT /akkoh/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me NARUM /kaw/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me MIRI /ko-y/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me BIN /akew/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me MUK /akew/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me UJ /aku-y/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me MNY /aku/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me MLG /aho/ I, myself (used chiefly after the predicate) " /iz-aho/ I, myself (used chiefly before the predicate) BA'AMANG /y-aku?/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me SIANG /akuh/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me SGH /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I IBAN /aku/ I, me, my, mine JAR /kew/ I, me RHA /kew/ I, me MAL /aku/ I; me. The pronoun of the first person singular, but used in a double sense: (i) `myself', used by a superior to an inferior, by an elder to a younger, or between equals talking so familiarly as to ignore etiquette. Also in prayer, (ii) `my own', i.e. taking responsibility for or answering for GAYO_ /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I KB /aku/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me TB /ahu/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me SIM /a?u/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me NIAS /y-a?o'/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me MENT /a_ku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I REJ /uku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I OJ /aku/ pronoun of the first person: I, me JAV /aku/ 1sg. nominative and accusative pronoun: I, me; my (variant of /-ku/) SAS /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BM /aku-oi/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BGG /i-aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BAR /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TAE' /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I MORI /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (future) UMA /aku-?/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I WOL /i-aku/ 1sg.: I, me " /-aku/ suffix with transitive verbs indicating 1sg. object CHM /gwahu/ 1sg. emphatic subject pronoun: I PAL /9ak/ 1sg. emphatic subject and object pronoun: I, me CMP: KOM /ahu/ 1sg.: I, me MGG /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I LIO /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SAVU /ya:/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I ROTI /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I ATONI /au?/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I KEMAK /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) MAMBAI /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) LETI /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) KISAR /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I ERAI /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SEL /yau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I YMD /yaku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I UJIR /ak/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I NGAIBOR /ok/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I ELAT /ak/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I GESER /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BNF /y-a_/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I HITU /y-au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) ALUNE /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) PAU /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) NUAULU /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I (*/-k-/ to zero regular? Cf. Oceanic) SOB /aku/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BURU /y-ako/ me. Usually objective case KOI /la?/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SEK /yai/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SHWNG: GIMAN /yak/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I BULI /ya/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I AMBAI /yau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I NUM /ya/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I WAND /yau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I OC: SOBEI /yau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I WUV /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I LEI /yo/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TABAR /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I DY /i-au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I LAK /e-au/ I, me MALEU /i-au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I MENGEN /i-au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I RORO /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I MOTU /lau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SUAU /yau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I UBIR /yau/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I TINPUTZ /yo/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I KIS /au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I SW TANNA /i-ou/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I FIJ /i-au/ 1sg. cardinal pronoun: I TON /au/ 1sg.: I, me NIUE /au/ 1sg.: I, me SAM /a?u/ 1sg. exclusive conjunct verbal pronoun (post-basic) MAO /au/ 1sg.: I, me TAH /(v)au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I HWN /(w)au/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */aku-en/ acknowledge; receive, accept WMP: ILK /ako-e'n/ receive, accept with both hands; receive graciously (a petitioner, etc.); to get (a reward) MAL(Sar) /akun/ claim, admit OJ /akon-akon/ possession (promised as war booty); acknowledged (adopted) child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */k-aku/ 1sg. to me F: AMIS /kako/ to me WMP: KAP /kaku/ 1sg. benefactive-dative personal pronoun; to (for) me (Mirikitani 1972:102) KB /kaku/ someone who answers for another REJ /k-akew/ acknowledge (imperative) OJ /k-a_ku/ make something one's own, to appropriate; relate to oneself, take possession of, master; regard as one's own, acknowledge, confess to, admit; to claim (as one's own), be sure of, depend on, answer for, guarantee, declare that one is able to (often boastfully) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-aku/ admit, confess WMP: PGS /ma9-a'ko/ accept, receive IBAN /9-aku?/ treat as, acknowledge; claim, admit, confess, own (as if owning up to the paternity of a child) KB /9-aku/ admit, confess TB /me9-ahu-hon/ desire for oneself DPB /me9-aku-i/ guarantee, be responsible for REJ /me9-akew/ acknowledging SND /9-aku/ admit, confess; to receive (a guest) OJ /a9-aku/ make something one's own, to appropriate; relate to someone; take possession of, master; regard as one's own, acknowledge, confess to, admit; claim (as one's own), be sure of, depend on, answer for, guarantee, declare that one is able to (often boastfully) JAV /9-aku/ acknowledge, claim or acknowledge as one's own; claim falsely MAD /9-ako/ admit, confess BAL /9-aku/ claim as one's own, say `mine'; acknowledge (a child) SAS /9-aku/ admit, confess SAN /ma9-aku/ admit, confess; undertake something TNTB /ma9-aku/ admit, confess; commit oneself to something GOR /mo9-aku/ admit, confess BM /mo9-aku/ admit, confess, acknowledge, promise DAMPELAS /me9-aku/ admit, confess BAR /ma9-aku/ admit, confess; undertake something TAE' /ma9-aku/ admit, confess MAK /a99-aku/ admit, confess ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */ni aku/ 1sg. agent WMP: CEB /n-a'ku?/ my; by me (agent/possessor form) LPG /n~ak/ I (coarse form) CMP: BIMA /nahu/ I (older person speaking to younger one: coarse, or non-respect form) OC: TIGAK /nak/ I MAGORI /nau/ 1sg. MISIMA /nau/ 1sg. BUG /i-nau/ I NGG /nau/ I, me; to seize LAU /nau/ I, me " /nau-nau/ self-assertive, egotist; strong and violent, of a person " /nau sata/ to own KWAIO /nau/ I, me " /nau ?ania/ claim title to SA'A /i-neu/ 1sg., used as subject only and followed by /nou/ ULAWA /i-nau/ 1sg., used as subject and also as a possessive MOTA /i-nau/ 1sg., I, me RAGA /i-nau/ 1sg. NGUNA /ki-nau/ 1sg. PAAMA /i-nau/ I, me, 1sg. CANALA /na/ I, me ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */9au/ 1sg.: I OC: SEI /9a/ 1sg. nominative pronoun: I LOU /9a/ 1sg.: I SENGSENG /9a/ 1sg.: I LAMOGAI /9a/ 1sg.: I MANAM /9au/ 1sg.: I GED /9a/ 1sg.: I, me GITUA /9a/ I (subject prefix): /yau 9a geno/ `I slept' LAMOGAI /9a/ 1sg.: I NISSAN /i-9o/ 1sg.: I, my KUSAIE /9a/ 1sg.: I MSH /9a/ absolute pronoun, 1sg.: I NOTE: Also NIAS_/ya?o/ `I', NGA_/dzao/ `I', SIKA_/?a?u/ `I', TET_/ha?u/ `I, me', YAPESE_/gaeg/ `I, me', MUS_/agi/ `I', VITU_/Gau/ `I, me', WOG_/va/ `I', ROV_/rau/ `I, me', ROT_/goua/ `I, me', TON_/ou/ `I, me'. Many reflexes of */aku/ contain a fossilized person marker */i/ (cf. Blust 1977). In some Oceanic languages it is difficult to determine whether an initial high front glide in this form is the reflex of */i/, or the epenthetic onset that was commonly added to forms that began with */a/ (Blust 1990:10ff). There are several additional problems associated with the morphology of this entry, not including the non-morphologically derived forms */-ku/ and */ak/, which are treated as separate entries. First, independent evidence for a directional particle */ki/ suggests that */k-aku/ derives ultimately from */ki aku/, although direct evidence for this collocation still is lacking. Second, widespread reflexes of */n-aku/ or */n~-aku/ (presumably < */ni aku/) suggest that the long-form pronoun */aku/ followed the agent/possessor marker */ni/ in certain constructions, even though normally only the short-form pronouns occurred in this environment (Blust 1977:5). Third, although it is necessary to reconstruct a POC variant */9au/ the source of the initial consonant, and the syntactic distinctions between */9au/ and other forms of the 1sg. personal pronoun remain unclear (cf. Pawley 1972:61, where `Proto-Eastern Oceanic' */(i) nau/ is glossed `1sg. focal', */au/ and */nau/ as `1sg. object', */(9)ku/ and */na(u)/ as `1sg. subject', and */-9ku/ as `1sg. possessive', although */9au/ does not appear among the languages considered, and hence is not considered). Fourth, so many CMP and OC languages show an irregular loss of */k/ in */aku/ that it is simplest to posit a change */aku/ > */au/ in their immediate common ancestor (PCEMP), which thus had variants */aku/, */au/. Although this is a distinction of form which evidently had no connection with morphology, we still must ask whether there could have been a syntactic distinction between */aku/ and */au/ in PCEMP or any of its descendants. Finally, although affixed forms of */aku/ meaning `admit, confess, acknowledge' and the like apparently must reconstructed, many of the known reflexes probably are due to borrowing (e.g. TAG_/pa9-a'ko?/ `promise', JAV_/pe9aku/ `confession, acknowledgement, verification'), MGG_/aku/, KMB_/ma9aku/ `admit, confess'. #cover, #wrap, #sheath (2) */a9kub/ cover WMP: BON /ako'b/ large covered basket, generally used as a lunch basket for carrying rice to the fields ILK /akku'b/ cover, wrapper, shell (of crab) " /ako'b/ join together two things of the same kind facing each other (two plates, two shells, two hands, etc.) JAV /a9kub/ calyx, flower sheath (green cover that splits at blossoming) BM /a9kub/ to cover (8) */a9kup/ cover OC: ARS /saku/ close tightly on NOTE: With root */-kub/ `cover'. Pigeaud_(1938) gives JAV_/a9kup/ `calyx'; /a9kub/ was offered by Soeparno_(p.c.). Cf. Zorc_(n.d.) PPH_*/a9kub/ `cover'. #scoop, #handful (3) */a9kup/ scoop up with both hands; a double handful WMP: ISG /a'kup/ to catch " /akku'p-an/ catch birds in their nest, at night ITW /m-a'kkup/ gather up in both hands cupped together DGT /ako'p/ pick up (as to pick up rice, salt, sand by cupping it in your hands, or to pick up a pile of clothing or trash in your arms BON /a'kop/ gather up with cupped hands, as spilt beans KAN /a'kup/ one (great) handful; one (small) armful. A quantity that can be taken up with both hands IFG /a'kup/ act of scooping out things (e.g. pounded rice, beans) with one's two hands joined IFGBt /a_kup/ scoop out a liquid or solid with the two hands cupped together ILK /aku'p-en/ gather, collect. With both hands, two brooms, etc., as dirt PGS /a'kop/ get with both hands HAN /a'kup/ handful, as of rice grains AKL /a'kop/ greedy, selfish CEB /akup-akup/ monopolize a job, possession, or enjoyment of something WBM /akup/ a measure of two handfuls MAR /akop/ scoop with both hands " /sa-?akop/ two handfuls TIR /akuf/ the contents of one's two cupped hands; try to get all for oneself KEN /akop/ with hands cupped; two hands full " /m-akop/ scoop with both hands NgD /akop/ scoop up with the two cupped hands " /a9kop/ small pincers or tweezers used to extract facial hair MAL /a9kup/ pincers, opening and shutting as tongs. Of an animal snapping its jaws, a person nipping with his fingers, a butcher seizing and tearing off the skin of a slaughtered animal DPB /a9kup/ small pincers used for plucking LPG /aku?/ take something OJ /a9kup/ pincers or tongs GOR /wa?upo/ catch, capture, be caught or captured NOTE: Also HLG_/ha'kup/ `handful, fistful'. This item evidently referred to the gathering of particulate matter in the two cupped hands. It is possible that those forms associated with the meaning `pincers, tweezers' are distinct, but I treat them as part of the same cognate set on the assumption that they share a common semantic element in the approximation of two surfaces brought together in order to lift an object. KEN, NgD_/akop/ show unexplained lowering of */u/, but clearly are cognate. Probably with root */-kup/ `enclose, cover'. #fetch, #get, #take (1) */ala/ fetch, get, take dbl. */alap/, */alaq/ F: PAZ /m-ara/ take THAO /m-a:ra/ take TSOU /m-aro/ take PR */mala/ take KAV /m-ara/ take AMIS /ala/ take (generic form) WMP: SND /ala/ fetch, get, look for, gather in, harvest #fetch, #get, #take (1) */alap/ fetch, get, take dbl. */ala/, */alaq/ F: PAI /alap/ take, pick up " /ki-alap/ (bride) go to groom's house WMP: ITB /axap/ idea of taking, getting, bringing " /axa-axap/ children's game: catching, tag " /paka-axap-an/ object-agent for plentiful catch (in fishing) DGT /ala'p/ to get, catch, trap KEL /alap/ act of taking, getting or fetching JAR /dua rep-an/ eight (etymologically = `two taken away from ten') MAL /alap/ gather fruit by means of a long pole to which a knife or hook is attached " /d-elap-an/ eight (etymologically = `two taken away from ten') TB /alap/ fetch; invite " /si-alap ari/ messenger of the bridegroom to the father of the bride to inquire about the day of the wedding ceremony SND /sa-lap-an/ eight (etymologically = `one taken away from ten') OJ /alap/ take, fetch, carry off, steal, seize, win " /alap alap/ a certain bird of prey. The texts suggest a large creature, which can attack a man; an eagle? " /dwa-lap-an/ eight (etymologically = `two taken away from ten') " /sa-lap-an/ eight (etymologically = `one taken away from ten') JAV /alap/ a variety of hawk BAL /alap/ take off, pluck (fruit), harvest; take away, abduct; the fruit-harvest PS */alap/ get, fetch SAN /ala?/ fetch, take; bite (of fish) BM /alap/ catch, seize, grasp OC: TON /ala/ gather or catch with the hands, of certain kinds of shellfish and small crabs " /alaf-i/ catch it " /alaf-ia/ (of a woman) to be married, or (more strictly) to have had sexual intercourse, not to be a virgin ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-alap/ fetched, gotten, taken WMP: ITB /ka-axap/ upon getting (it) OJ /k-a_lap/ taken, fetched, carried off ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-alap-an/ fetched, gotten, taken WMP: ITB /ka-axap-an/ getting OJ /k-a_lap-an/ taken, fetched, carried off ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ma-alap/ be taken F: PAI /ma-alap/ be taken; able to be reached; become convinced, have mind changed; be enticed, led astray WMP: ITB /ma-axap/ be caught, be apprehended OJ /m-a_lap/ take, fetch, carry off ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */maka-alap/ able to fetch, get, take, reach WMP: ITB /maka-axap/ can get SAN /maka-ala?/ able to reach or get BM /moko-alap/ able to seize or capture ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-alap/ fetch, get, take WMP: ITB /ma9-xap/ fetch, get, buy, procure, take KEL /9-alap/ take, get, fetch BI /me9-alap/ fetch (knock down) fruits, etc. TB /ma9-alap/ fetch; invite OJ /a9-alap/ take, fetch, carry off, steal, seize, win SAN /ma9-ala?/ fetch, take; bite (of fish) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-alap/ means or instrument for catching WMP: OJ /pa9-alap/ a means of catching SAN /pa9-ala?/ all sorts of fishing gear: nets, traps, lines, spears, etc. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-alap-an/ place where something is fetched WMP: TB /pa9-alap-an boru/ that relationship within which a man is permitted by customary law to take a wife " /pa9-alap-an gogo/ the place or means by which one acquires strength OJ /pa9-alap-an/ place for fetching something ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */in-alap/ that which has been taken; was taken by F: PAI /in-alap/ something which has been taken; one's catch (hunting) WMP: ITB /in-axap/ was taken; took, got KEL /n-alap/ was taken or gotten by OJ /in-alap/ was taken, fetched, carried off, stolen, seized, won BM /in-alap/ captured, seized, taken ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */um-alap/ fetch, get, take WMP: ITB /om-axap/ take, get, bring OJ /u)m-alap/ take, fetch, carry off, steal, seize, win ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */alap-an/ (?) WMP: ITB /axap-an/ means for taking BAL /alap-an/ the harvesting of fruit ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */alap-en/ fetch, get, take WMP: ITB /axap-en/ get, take, fetch, buy, take out, draw out BM /alap-on/ it must or shall be gotten or taken NOTE: Also ITW_/a'lak/ `take', EDDY_/alavi/ `marry', NGG_/alavi/ `get, take'. The reduplicated forms of */alap/ in ITB and OJ are assumed to be independent developments. This form and its doublet */alaq/ both appear to have covered the semantic range represented by the common English verbs `get' and `take', and there is some evidence that it could be used at least in certain contexts in the sense of `to bring'. In addition reflexes of both variants contain recurrent references to 1. one's `catch' in hunting or fishing (PAI, ITB, SAN, TON), 2. the harvesting of fruit or grain (= one's `catch' in gathering; MAL, BAL), and 3. to marriage, with particular reference to a man `taking' a woman to wife (PAI, TB, TON, perhaps EDDY for */alap/, BGG, UMA, WOL, KOM, WETAN for */alaq/). #defeat (3) */alaq/\1 defeat WMP: KAD /aha/ defeat NgD /alah/ lose, be overcome (in battle, legal matters); lose things IBAN /alah/ beaten, defeated; subdue, vanquish MAL /alah/ defeat; being worsted in battle REJ /alea?/ defeated OJ /alah/ lose, be defeated, be worsted, give away, succumb BAL /alah/ destroy, defeat, abandon; destruction BGS /p-ala/ to win ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-alaq/ defeated WMP: KAD /ka-aha/ be able to overcome, beat or conquer NgD /k-alah/ lose, be overcome MAL /k-alah/ a condition or position of inferiority BAL /ka-alah/ destroy, defeat ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-alaq/ defeat, overcome WMP: KAD /ma9-aha/ defeat, overcome OJ /ma9-alah/ give in, admit oneself beaten BAL /9-alah/ destroy, defeat, abandon NOTE: Also ASI_/ala/ `overcome, defeat; outsmart' (probably a loan from Ambonese Malay). KAD_/ka-aha/ may reflect */maka-alaq/). Said (1977) cites a number of apparently disparate forms under /ala/, some of which probably are /ala/ and others /ala?/. I assume that BGS_/pala/ does not end with a glottal stop, although no explicit indication of the contrast between -/?/ and zero is given in his orthography. #fetch, #get (1) */alaq/\2 fetch, get dbl. */alap/ dsj. */ala/ F: AMIS /mi-ala/ get WMP: ISG /ala'?/ get, obtain, take, catch, bring PGS /ala'/ get, take KAY /ala/ get, receive, find, take UMA /ala?/ get, fetch CMP: MGG /ala/ get, fetch SHWNG: BULI /yal/ get, fetch NOTE: Mills_(1975:618) posits PSS_*/ala/ `take', which he derives from PAN_*/alap/ ``with irregular loss of the final in PSS''. If the PSS form is derived instead from */ala/ (Tsuchida_1976) or */alaq/ no irregularity is involved. #fetch, #get, #take (2) */alaq/ fetch, get, take dbl. */ala/, */alap/ WMP: ISG /ala?/ get, obtain, take, catch, bring BON /a'la/ get IFG /a'la/ conveys the action-denoting idea of getting, taking IFGBt /a_la/ get ILK /a'la/ take, get, go to and get PGS /ala'/ get, take " /ala-a'n/ source of something KAY /ala/ get, receive, take, find KEN /ala?/ take MLG /a'la/ removed, taken away, released, fetched, withdrawn, freed from MENT /ala/ fetch, get, pick up BGG /ala/ take away, fetch " /po-ala/ marry UMA /ala?/ fetch, get, take " /si-ala/ meet each other, find each other, marry each other, grasp each other; fight with each other BAR /aya/ fetch, get, take; use; believe, trust; care for; reckon with TAE' /ala/ fetch, get, take; begin a song; contact, touch MDR /ala/ fetch, get, take BGS /ala/ fetch, get, take " /ka-ala-ala/ take what is not rightfully one's own WOL /ala/ take, fetch, include, take along, take away, accept " /po-ala/ change with each other, marry one another CMP: KOM /ala/ take; marry " /ala/ fetch, get, take; search for (firewood), cut and haul (pandanus); understand, grasp RMB /ala/ fetch, get, take NGA /ala/ fetch, get, take; take out, win, capture " /ala ate'/ take note of, remember SIKA /?ala/ fetch, get, take, capture ROTI /-ala/ fetch, get, take, capture KISAR /ala/ give WETAN /ala/ to use, to take; like, love, marry " /i-ala/ belongings, clothing, what one uses SEL /al/ receive, get, take; give SOB /ala/ fetch, get, take, capture BURU /ala-h/ pluck, as grain from the stem " /ala-k/ bring OC: GLB /ana/ take, subtract, take away, remove, take off ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-alaq/ WMP: WOL /ka-ala/ amount of sales, turnover, profit ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma-alaq/ taken, fetched F: [AMIS /ma-ala/ be taken by] WMP: ISG /ma-ala?/ to get, etc., be able to get, etc., it can be got, etc. BAR /m-aya/ it is taken, caught, succeeded, it can be, may be, it is possible TAE' /ma-ala/ it is gotten, it is successful, it is popular, it has a discount (of merchandise) WOL /ma-ala/ in demand, in favor, popular ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-alaq/ fetch, get, take WMP: ISG /ma9-ala?/ catch IFG /ma9-a'la/ go to get MLG /man-a`la/ take away, remove from, subtract, withdraw from BGG /ma9-ala/ take away, fetch UMA /9-ala?/ take, fetch, get BAR /ma9-aya/ do one thing or another to someone; damage something TAE' /ma9-ala/ fetch, take, in the pregnant sense of lending money ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-alaq/ what is used for getting something WMP: ISG /pa9-ala?/ to get, etc. IFGBt /pa9-a_la/ instrument used to get something TAE' /pa9-ala gelo9/ leader of song group in the /maro/ ceremony ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */um-alaq/ fetch, get, take F: KNB /um-a'-ala/ to take WMP: BON /om-a'la/ to get IFG /um-a'la/ get, take BGS /m-ala/ get, fetch, obtain ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */alaq-en/ be taken F: [AMIS /ala-en/ be taken] WMP: ILK /ala'-en/ take, get, go and get BON /ala'-en/ get IFGBt /ala-on/ get MLG /ala-i`na/ be fetched; be taken, be summoned, be called, be invited; be chosen, be preferred #resemble, #similar (3) */alaq/\3 resemble WMP: CEB /a'la?/ be mistaken for another person BAL /alah/ be like, resemble #shadow (3a) */alinaw/ shadow dbl. */qaninu/, etc. WMP: GAD /alinaw/ shadow BM /olinow/ shadow, that is shadow-image NOTE: Also SUB(S)_/dlinaw/ `image', KAY_/hi9au/ `shade'. #move, #change place (2) */aliq/ move, change place WMP: NgD /alih/ change, alteration, evasion IBAN /alih/ change MAL /ale'h/ veer, change, shift one's position TB /ali/ in place of " /ma9-ali-i/ replace REJ /alia?/ move, transfer (of an individual or group) SND /alih/ move, change residence OJ /alih/ moving to another place, changing JAV /alih/ act of moving (changing residence); (having been) moved from one place to another OC: MOTA /al/ to move " /ali-al/ move from place to place NOTE: Dempwolff (1938) included TAG_/ali'/ `dominating; influence; succession; to dominate, influence', and FIJ_/yali/ `lost, absent, missing' in this comparison, but neither form is semantically close to the set given here. Moreover, although he cites TAG_/ali?/ `Nachfolger with a final glottal stop his source (Laktaw 1914) gives /ali/. In addition, Tsuchida (1976:172) compares KNB_/taku-ai'?i/ `change one's direction, veer', a resemblance which I believe can most plausibly be attributed to chance. The distribution of the residual cognate set leaves open the possibility that */aliq/ was a relatively late innovation in western Indonesia. #brand, #charred #wood, #firewood, #fire (3) */aliten/ firebrand; unconsumed wood in a fire; charred wood dbl. */aluten/ WMP: ISG /alita_n/ firebrand, half-burned wood NIAS /alito~/ fire NOTE: Also MOTA_/lito/ `firewood'. (2) */aluten/ firebrand; unconsumed wood in a fire; charred wood dsj. */luten/ WMP: ISG /aluta'n/ firebrand, half-burned wood BON /alote'n/ pieces of split log when placed on a fire; firewood IFG /aluto'n/ pieces of wood that are not, or not wholly burned and still lie in the hearth BISAYA BUKIT /luton/ firewood LgW /luten/ fire KAY /luten/ firebrand, partly burnt stick; faggots IBAN /lutan/ charred wood, cold embers, litter of charred logs in burned clearing; unburned logs BM /oluton/ remains of firewood in the hearth, pieces of smouldering wood CMP: TET /ha?i lutan/ burning brand SHWNG: SAWAI /luten/ fire NOTE: BISAYA_BUKIT_/luton/ `firewood' was erroneously glossed `burning brand' in Blust_(1980). #heat, #roast, #heat (3) */alub/ put in or over a fire WMP: MAR /alob/ roast, blacken by heating TIR /alub/ warm or dry something briefly over a fire OJ /alub/ put in the fire, heat JAV /alub/ to parboil (vegetables) by placing them in hot water briefly #paddle (2) */aluja/ to paddle WMP: KB (Joustra_1912) /er-luga/ to paddle PAL /me-iu's/ row, paddle; stir OC: RAL (Nokon dial.) /alus/ to paddle ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */pa-aluja/ to paddle F: KAV /paluna/ paddle, oar; to paddle, to row WMP: GAD /paluwa/ to paddle SUB (S) /p+lula/ to paddle OC: LIKUM /heluh/ to paddle ARS /haruta/ to paddle NOTE: Also ISG_/pilo'xa/ `the oars and paddles of a canoe'. Consonant-initial forms are assumed to contain the (fossilized) causative prefix */pa-/. Some of the Oceanic members of this comparison were first brought to my attention by Ross Clark. #shade, #shadow (2) */alu9/ shade, shadow WMP: CEB /a'lu9/ cast a shadow over something MAR /alo9/ shadow, see dimly WBM /alu9/ shadow, reflection TBL /olu9/ shadow, reflection TIR /alu9/ shade SAS /alu9/ screened, shaded CMP: SOB /ka-m-alo9/ shadow " /baka-m-alo9/ shaded OC: ARS /m-aru(-na)/ shade; to shadow, overshadow TON /m-alu/ shaded or sheltered REN /m-agu/ shade, shelter, protection; to shade, shelter, protect NOTE: Also TIR_/galu9/ `shade oneself; in the shade', TBL_/kelu9/ `shade', BM_/oliu9/ `shadow', RAL_/malur/ `shade'. #{??} (2) */aluten/ {??left out? see AE III no 8} dbl. */aliten/ #father (1) */ama/ father F: TSOU /amo'/ father THAO /ama/ father PR /ama/ father RUK(Bd) /ama/ father (addr.) AMIS /w-ama/ father " /ama/ father (Hualien county) PUY(T) /ama/ father, uncle PAI /ama/ father! WMP: YAMI /ama/ father IBG /y-ama/ father ISG /ama_/ father. Sometimes: uncle or any relative whose relationship is similar to that of a father ITW /ama'/ father DGT /a'ma/ father (reference) BON /ama'/ married man; adult male, one who has had a child; an old man, one who has grandchildren and who knows the prayers; be big, of children, male or female, especially newborn, also of sweet potatoes " /a'ma/ term of address for one's male relatives at the first ascending generation level; father; uncle; father-in-law KAN /ama'/ father; parent; sire " /a'ma/ my father IFG /ama'/ father KAN /a'ma/ my father ILK /ama'/ father. Also said of persons that are old enough to be one's father PGS /ama'/ father TAG /ama'/ father, progenitor; founder AKL /ama'(h)/ father CEB /ama na'mu?/ the Lord's prayer " /ama'/ expression uttered when frightened: help! YAKAN /s-ama/ father KAD /ama/ father (addr.) MATU /amah/ father NgD /ama / uncle (term used for one's \own\ uncle; for the uncle of another person one uses /mama/); also often used for other older unrelated persons SGH /s-ama/ father JAR /ama/ father RHADE /ama/ father " /ma/ father (children's speech) GAYO /ama/ father SIM /ama/ father NIAS /ama/ father, uncle (also more distant relatives), father-in-law MENT /ama/ father UMA /tu-ama/ father MORI /ama/ father BGS /ama/ father MUNA /ama/ father WOL /ama/ father BONERATE /ama/ father GOR /tiy-amo/ father CMP: BIMA /ama/ father SIKA /ama/ father KMB /ama/ father, FB SAVU /a`ma/ father ROTI /ama/ father TET /ama-n/ father, FB KEMAK /ama-kai/ father LAM /ama/ father (used only in traditional ceremonies) KED /amo/ father LETI /ama/ father ERAI /ama(n)/ father, father's brother and the other male members of father's lineage and generation SEL /ama/ father YMD /ame/ father, FB, MZH NGAIBOR /ama/ father KEI /yama-n/ father ELAT /ama/ father BONFIA /yama/ father ASI /ama/ father (archaic); a rank in the village hierarchy related to /adat/ PAU /ama/ father ALUNE /ama/ father BURU /ama/ father; ancestor; son. Used as `son' in address only SOB /n-ama/ father SEKAR /yama/ father ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */da-ama/ father F: SIR /dama/ father WMP: AGTA /deme/ father (ref.) SARIKEI /dama-m/ your father (used by persons of GP's generation in speaking to GC) SIM /da-ama/ the fathers OJ /r-a_ma/ father, also used for uncle, guru, etc.; eldest, senior (in religious community, village, army) JAV /ra@ma@/ father; older and/or higher-ranking male ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */maR-ama/ to be father and child F: [PUY(T) /maR-tama/ father and child] WMP: ITB /mi-ama/ father and child ISG /magga-ama_/ father and child(ren) [BKL /mag-ama'-?/ father and child] AKL /mag-ama'/ related as father and child SIM /mal-ama/ have a father ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */si ama/ father (ref.) WMP: YAKAN /s-ama/ father SGH /s-ama/ father GOR /tiy-amo/ father LAUJE /si ama/ father DAMPELAS /si ama9/ father ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ta-ama/ father (ref.) F: TAR /tama/ father BUN /tama/ father RUK(Tana) /t-ama'/ father (ref.) RUK(Bd) /t-a'ma/ father (ref.) PAI /tjama/ father (familiar, usually in questions to child) (2) */t-ama/ father WMP: KAD /tama/ father (ref.) BELAIT /tamah/ father KEL /te-tameh/ father (ref.) LgT /tameh/ father BB /t-amah/ father (ref.) LgW /t-amen/ father (ref.) Long Atip /t-ama-n/ father (ref.) KIP /tama/ father NARUM /tamah/ father (ref.) MIRI /tama/ father BIN /tama/ father MUK /tama/ father BGG /tama/ father PAL /che-da'm/ father (addr.) " /dema'-/ paternal GP " /ua-da'm/ old man (term of reference for older male in-law) SHWNG: BULI /hma_/ father, FB NUM /kema/ father (ref.) WINDESI /tama/ father OC: WUV /ama-/ father SEI /tam(a)-/ father LEIPON /time-/ father LIKUM /tama-/ father NALI /tama-/ father LOU /tama-/ father NAUNA /tama-/ father WOG /tama-/ father MANAM /tama-/ father, uncle GED /tama-/ father, FB, son, MZH (w.s.); FB, MZH (m.s.); lord, master, guardian; owner, composer, originator, inventor GIT /tama-/ father, FB, MZH NMB /tama-/ father (term of third person reference) WAMPAR /rama-/ father MOTU /tama-/ father RORO /hama-/ father MUS /tama-/ father TIGAK /tama-/ father TABAR /tama-/ father MENDAK /tama-/ father RAL /tama(-na)/ father, father and child, or the relationship between them or between them and the father's brothers LAK /tama-/ father, FB VITU /tama-/ father DOBU /tama-/ father MOL /tama-/ father MISIMA /tama-/ father KIL /tama-/ father, FB, FZS, MZH NISSAN /tama-/ father SELAU /tama-gla/ father BANONI /tama-/ father BABATANA /tama-e/ father ROV /tama-na/ father EDDY /tama-/ father, grandfather, uncle BUG /tama-n~a/ father NGG /tama/ father (ref.); those of his standing in a man's clan LAU /ama-na/ father SA'A /ama/ father, FB GLB /tama/ father MSH /jema/ father, FB PON /sahm/ father, any person one's father would call brother TRUK /saam/ one who is a father, fathers (when used without a possessive suffix); father, grandfather, uncle, any male relative of higher generation in one's own or one's spouse's father's lineage WOL /tam(a)/ father; father's side, patrilineality MOTA /tama-i/ father, in relation to individuals RAGA /tama/ father PETERARA /tama/ father NGUNA /tama/ father SEA /tame/ father, FB, FFF, MZH (w.s.), BS, HZS FIJ /tama/ father, FB, MZH TON /tama-i/ father, FB SAM /tama-a/ father REN /tama-na/ classificatory father; to have a classificatory father KPA /dama-na/ father, uncle; big, large (singular) NUK /dama-na/ father, uncle, senior male relative, male elder, person in a fatherly relationship RAR /tama/ term used as a respectful manner of address to a man, being equivalent to the English word, sir RAR /e tama!/ interjection, exclamation which denotes `I say! oh dear! bother!; sometimes used as an exclamation of surprise or annoyance MAO /tama/ man ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-ama-en/ fatherhood WMP: BON /ka-ama-en/ uncle AKL /ka-amah-a'n/ (< A) fatherhood TB /ha-ama-on/ paternity, fatherhood ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */kam-ama-an/ father's brother WMP: RD /kam-ama-n/ FB, MB LB /kem-ama-n/ MB, MZ " /kem-ama-n mianay/ FB " /kem-ama-n kekimu?/ FZ KIP /kem-ama-n/ uncle MENT /kam-ama-an/ FB, FZ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */pa(ka)-ama/ treat like a father WMP: NIAS /fa-?ama/ call father OC: SAM /fa?a-tama-a/ treat like a father ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */paR-ama-en/ relationship of father and child WMP: TB /par-ama-on/ relationship of children to their father JAV /p-ama-n/ uncle; uncle who is a parent's younger brother; older man of lower status than speaker [TNTB /pa-ama-9-an/ anything that serves as a sign of the relationship, or the reason for the relationship between father and child] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */paRi-ama/ relationship of father and children WMP: BOANO /pogi-ama-9-an/ uncle ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8) */paRi-tama/ relationship of father and children OC: SA'A /mu hei ama-da/ fathers and children FIJ /vei-tama-ni/ father and son relationship: applied to animals (cp. also TB /par-ama-on/ `relationship of children to their father') REN /hai-tama-na/ classificatory father in relation to his children; to be such ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ama-an/ (?) WMP: IFG /ama-a_n/ thumb CEB /amah-an/ father [BTK /ama_y-an/ FB] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ama-en/ uncle WMP: ITB /ama-en/ father-in-law, one considered as father, foster father KALINGA /ama?-on/ uncle, great uncle CEB /ama'-?un/ godfather in any ceremony MMN /ama?-en/ uncle MENT /ama-?an/ corpulent, easy, comfortable (given by Morris \sub\ /a_ma/ `father') ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ama'-9/ father (voc.) WMP: DGT /ame'-9/ father (vocative) TAG /ama'-9/ (in some localities) elder person HAN /ama'-9/ father (vocative) TAPUH /ema9/ father SADONG /ama9/ father TB /ama'9 / vocative: oh, father! SAN /i ama9/ father TNTB /ama9/ father TOTOLI /ama9/ father CMP: MGG /ama-9/ FZH, HF, MB, WF ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ama-?/ father (voc.) F: SAR /ama?a/ father (reference) WMP: ITB /ama?/ father BKL /ama'?/ father HAN /a'ma?/ father (particularly in the nominative) TBW(K) /ama?/ father BTK /ama'?/ father (particularly in the nominative) MSK /ama?/ father WBM /ama?/ father (direct address) MAR /ama?/ father SUB /gama?/ father TBL /ma?/ father SML /+mma?/ father BANGGI /ame?/ father ALUMBIS MURUT /ama?/ father IDA'AN /ama?/ father TM /ama?/ father LgWat /ama?/ father (add.) LONG SELAAN /ama?/ father LAHANAN /ama?/ father BUKAT /ama?/ father MALOH /ama?/ father TUNJUNG /ma?/ father MAD /emma?/ father SAS /ama?/ father SAN /ama?/ father (Tamako and Siau dialects) BANTIK /(i)ama?/ father TND /ama?/ father BM /ama?/ father; sometimes also mother, and uncle MAK /amma/ father CMP: MGG /ema/ F, FB, MZH NGA /ema/ father; favorite son ATONI /ama?/ father ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ama-i/ father (voc.) WMP: DGT /ama'y/ uncle HLG /ama'y/ father BTK /amay-an/ FB BKD /amay/ father, vocative. Term of address for one's father WBM /amey/ father (reference) MbS /amay/ father LgA /amay/ father KAY /amei/ father (vocative); polite address to an older man NgD /amai/ father DUSUN MALANG /amai/ father [SIANG /tamay/ father] CMP: RIUNG /ame/ father NGA /ame/ father, uncle, nephew ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ama ama/ stepfather WMP: BON /am-?ama'/ and old man, one who has grandchildren and who knows the prayers KAN /am-?ama'/ old man AKL /a'ma-a'ma/ stepfather CEB /ama-a'ma/ stepfather [BKD /amay-amay/ stepfather] MSK /ama-ama/ big man [MAR /ama? ama?/ stepfather] TB /ama-ama/ everyone who is called father WOL /ka-ama-ama/ adopted father (an older person of one's own choice with whom one has a friendly relationship) NOTE: Also PAI_/kama/ `father', WOL_/ka-ama-ama/ `adopted father', BM_/kog-ama?/ `have a father', NIAS_/ma9-ama/ `acknowledge as a father, call father', BKL_/pako'-ama?o'n/ `uncle', CEB_/pa9-ama/ `to to someone to ask for help as though he were one's father', BM_/poku-ama?-an/ `uncle', UMA_/tuama/ `father', MNY_/amah/ `father MGG_/ema/ `father', LIO_/ema/ `father', SIKA_/?ama/ `father'. #mat (3) */amak/ mat dsj. */hamak/ dbl. */lamak/ WMP: SBL(Bt) /amak/ mat HAN /ama'k/ woven mat, especially one made of buri-palm leaves and used for sleeping purposes AKL /ama'k-an/ mat of woven bamboo CEB /ama'k-an/ bamboo matting woven with a kind of twill weave, commonly used for walling (the weft is passed over two and under two warp pieces); weave /ama'kan/ " /in-ama'kan/ something woven like /ama'kan/ TBW(A) /amak-an/ reed mat used to dry rice TB /amak/ mat woven of (Binsen) " /amah-amak/ straw that is scattered under the ears of rice after the stalks are trampled to separate the grain " /amak podom-an/ sleeping mat #dare (3) */ama9 ama9/ dare to do something WMP: CEB /ama'9-ama'9/ have the nerve to do something which an ordinary person wouldn't dare do IBAN /ama9/ menace, threaten, aim (weapon) at; (hence) test, try (someone) MAL /ama9/ defiance " /ama9 ama9/ to challenge BI /me9-ama9 ama9/ frighten someone, threaten (by pointing a weapon at them, etc.) #eat (3) */amaq/ to eat WMP: TIR /ama?/ to eat BAL /amah/ eat ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */amaq-an/ eating place (?) WMP: TIR /ama?-an/ the place on the floor where people are eating; by recent extension, a table BAL /amah-an/ wood eaten into dust (by worms); cooked rice #tree (3) */amaRa/ tree sp. WMP: CEB /amaga'/ a forest tree: %Diospyros% sp. MAL /mara kelua9/ a tree: %Melanorrhoea curtisii%, %Melanorrhoea pubescents W.% TAE' /mara/ tree with beautiful black wood, of which blowpipes are made MAK /amara/ tree with strong wood used to make the shafts of lances and pikes, and also formerly used to make the finishing planks of royal canoes #all; #finished (1) */am(e)?in/ all; finished F: BUN /amin/ all PAI /amin/ finished; there is no more, there is no other than " /pu-amin/ complete, terminate, leave WMP: ISG /ammi'n/ all; consume, exterminate, finish; (to do) all, completely BON /am?i'n/ all KAN /am?i'n/ all, whole, each, any, every; everyone, everything, wholly, entirely, quite, completely, thoroughly IFG /am?i'n/ all, persons or things; is often pronounced as if there were no glottal catch IFGBt /amin/ do all, complete something, exhaust a supply, as of food, money; all, exclusively ILK /a'min/ all; total, entire, complete, whole " /a'min no/ whatever PGS /ami'n/ all KAP /amin/ consume, finish WBM /amin/ complete; consume; use up MAR /amin/ formula used in ending prayer; so be it NOTE: Also ISG_/a'min/ `all', BON_/ami'n/ `use up, consume', KOI_/lomin/ `full'. #sting, #itch, #plant (3) */amia9/ any plant with hairs that sting or cause itchiness WMP: IBAN /mia9/ irritants produced by plants; irritating; irritated (as by paddy dust or bamboo) (Scott), minute bristles on bamboos and other plants; irritation of skin caused by them (Richards) MAL /mia9/ itchiness; the fine hairs on certain plants (as bamboo) that cause itchiness when touched MLG /ami'ana/ shrubs with large stinging hairs #suffix, #locative, #location (1) */-an/ verbal suffix marking locative focus; nominal suffix marking location F: ATY /-an/ suffix forming first passive indicative from the reduced stem, and suffix forming first passive perfect from the reduced stem in connection with the infix /-in-/. Forms an imperative with the reduced or extra reduced stem. Forms nouns indicating place or time. Common suffix in place names, and less common suffix in personal names (e.g. /qalup/ `to hunt' : /qlup-an/ `hunting ground') PAI /-an/ specific location in time or space; specific one/type: /kan-an/ `eating place' (/kan/ `eat') WMP: BON /-an/ a voice-marking suffix, non-completive aspect, which subjectivalizes the locative case relation; a gerundivizing suffix occurring in combination with voice marking affixes... In appropriate contexts it also functions as a temporal or locative suffix ILK /-an/ a suffix of general use, mostly locative IFG /-an/ suffix of general use. First, it conveys a locative meaning; it is used to form names of places, or common nouns indicating certain places... Second, /-an/ (like /-on/) is a suffix which actually verbalizes a given word-base by making it pertain to the so-called passive voice.....The difference between the suffix /-on/ and the suffix /-an/ can be (in some way) clarified as follows: the suffix /-on/ puts in evidence that the meaning of the word-base can be applied and, in fact, is applied to the direct object, while the suffix /-an/ puts in evidence that the meaning of the word-base is only indirectly applicable to the grammatical object TAG /-an/ the /-an/ suffix usually functions as the affix that focuses attention on the person or object or place toward which the action is directed or where the action is being carried out. Usually the actor focus counterpart of the /-an/ suffix is /-um-/: /b-um-ili' kami' sa kaniya'/ `we bought from her (actor focus construction)', /b-in-ilh-a'n nami'n siya'/ `we bought from her (locative focus construction) (Ramos 1981:63) BKL /-an/ 1. verbal affix, locative series, infinitive-command form: /duma'n/ `there, yonder' : /duman-a'n/ `come or go to', 2. verbal affix, reflexive action series, infinitive-command form: /huga'k/ `lazy' : /hugak-a'n/ `to feel lazy', 3. verbal affix, regular series, infinitive-command form: /imbita'r/ `invite' : /imbitar-a'n/ `to invite', 4. alternant command suffix for verbs taking /i-/ in the infinitive: /i-abo't mo an asi'n/ or /abot-a'n an asi'n/ `pass the salt', 5. nominal affix, locative: /eskue'la/ `student' : /eskuelah-a'n/ `school' AKL /-an/ common suffix denoting a place or a referent. Used with (1) verbs: /ginba'ke-an sa'nda it du'lsi/ `candy was bought for them', (2) nouns: /simba'h-an/ `church' (from /si'mba(h)/ `worship'), /tinda'h-an/ `market' (from /ti'nda(h)/ `goods for sale'), (3) adjectives: /ba?ba'-an/ `talkative' (from /ba'?ba?/ `mouth') HLG /-an/ infinitive benefactive-locative focus affix; noun formative affix designating a container or a place where an action occurs CEB /-an/ local passive verb affix, future; noun forming affix. 1. forming nouns which refer to a place where something is found, done, held, located..., 2. forming nouns which refer to a person possessed of a certain power..., adjective forming suffix 1. forming adjectives which mean `characterized by being [so-and-so]..., 2. added to nouns to form adjectives which mean `having [so-and-so] MAR /-an/ a third grammatical relation between the verb and the /so/-phrase is indicated by the suffix /-an/: /Tabas(an) o bebai so mama?/ (cut /o/-woman /so/-man) `The man is the one for whom the woman will cut it' or `The woman will cut it for the man'. Here the action is performed on behalf of the one designated by the particle /so/. The /so/-phrase stands in an indirect relation to the verb. It may indirectly receive the action, be the location of the action, or be the associate or beneficiary of the action. The suffix /-an/ thus marks referential voice TM /-an/ associate focus suffix. It occurs with all verbs that are inflected with -um- in the subject focus...The past temporal aspect is formed by the addition of /-in-/ ... to the future temporal forms (e.g. /min-o9oy/ `went (active)' : /in-a9ay-an/ `place where someone went') KEL /-an/ marker of nouns of location (e.g. /irup/ `what is drunk; way or manner of drinking' : /m-irup/ `to drink' : /rup-an/ `watering hole for animals in the jungle', /dalan/ `path, road' : /nalan/ `to walk' : /delan-an/ `path made by repeated walking over the same course MLG /-ana/ passives in /-ana/ are often similar in meaning to those in /-ina/, and are used simply as passives of verbs active transitive in /mi-/ and /man-/. Often, however, passives in /-ina/ and /-ana/ are made from the same root, and used in different senses, thus: from /ta`mpoka/ (`suddenly, unexpectedly') are formed /tampo'h-ina/ `being surprised', and /tampo'h-ana/ `having cold water added'; the passive in /a-/ is of very frequent occurrence. Its primary meaning is said to be that an object is placed in such and such a position...The most difficult use, however, to a learner is when it is made a correlative of the passive in /-ana/...Many verb that govern two accusatives, one of an object to which something is done, and the other of the instrument, means, etc., with which the action is effected, make the former the nominative case of a passive in /-ana/, and the latter of a passive in /a-/... Thus in the sentence /mano'so tso'lika a'zy a`ho/ `I anoint it with oil', the body anointed would be made nominative case of the passive /hoso'r-ana/ ..., and the oil of the verb /a-ho`sotra/ BI /-an/ the suffix /-an/ is used to form nouns from various types of base ... It is also used to form a small number of adjectives and adverbs ... When added to a root which can function as a noun, the suffix /-an/ 1. occasionally produces a noun which hardly varies in meaning from the base noun (e.g. /rua9/ `room' : /rua9-an/ `room'); 2. more usually it produces a noun whose referent has some real or fancied resemblance to the referent of the base noun (e.g. /achir/ `end' : /achir-an/ `suffix', /anak/ `child' : /anak-an/ `interest (on an investment)', /rambut/ `hair' : /rambut-an/ `a fruit, the hairy cherry'; 3. when added to a noun root (usually reduplicated) the suffix /-an/ forms a noun which refers to a collection of the referents of the simple noun, or of related referents (e.g. /binta9/ `star' : /binta9-an/ `constellation', /pohon/ `tree' : /pohon-pohon-an/ `trees, the vegetable kingdom'; 4. when added to a numerative (usually only /satu/, or those which can be preceded by /satu/ in the form /se-/), the suffix /-an/ forms a noun referring to a group consisting of that number (e.g. /satu/ `one' : /satu-an/ `a unit', /-puluh/ `ten' : /puluh-an/ `decade, a group of ten'; 5. when added to a verb (all other prefixes and suffixes being lost), the suffix /-an/ forms a noun which refers to what is involved in the performance of the action referred to by the verb, whether as the product or the instrument (e.g. /makan/ `eat' : /makan-an/ `food', /me-lukis/ `to draws, paint' : /lukis-an/ `a drawing, painting', /me9-ayun/ `to rock, sway' : /ayun-an/ `cradle'. Such nouns in /-an/ contrast with nouns in /ke- -an/, /per- -an/ and /pe9- -an/ in that they refer to more concrete or definite things, while the three latter groups refer to more abstract processes. Nonetheless, there is sometimes a congruence in meaning between the noun in /-an/ and the other nouns, especially those in /per- -an/ and /pe9- -an/...6. Such nouns, derived from verbs by the addition of /-an/, refer to a collection of items, when the root is reduplicated (e.g. /me9-gali/ `to dig' : /gali-an/ `what is dug up' : /gali-gali-an/ `minerals, root crops', /tembak/ `to shoot' : /tembak-an/ `shot' : /tembak-tembak-an/ `shooting'; 7. Just as the suffix /-an/, added to a reduplicated noun root, produces a noun referring to a collection of items, the same suffix, added to a few adjective roots, usually reduplicated, produces a noun referring to a collection of items which can be characterized by that adjective (e.g. /enak/ `delicious' : /enak-enak-an/ `delicacies', /manis/ `sweet' : /manis-an/ `candy, sweets'; 8. Otherwise, adjectives and the occasional verb root, when reduplicated and followed by /-an/, produce adjectives, or adverbs of manner (e.g. /tera9/ `bright' : /tera9-tera9-an/ `frank', /takut/ `afraid' : /takut-takut-an/ `bashful', /buta/ `blind' : /buta-buta-an/ `at random, blindly') (Macdonald and Soenjono 1967:65ff). SIM /-an/ suffix used to form: 1. abstract nouns, 2. nouns which express a nominal perfect participle, 3. nouns of location; verbal suffix used to express various relationships between the action and the object; added to qualitative and intransitive constructions it has a causative function TB /-an/ (in the second passive) the prefix /tar-/ or /ha-/ is placed before the nominal form. The prefix /ha/ is always used when the active has the suffix /-i/: in the passive, this suffix is replaced by /-an/... The passive verbal substantives with the suffix /-an/ do not always have a corresponding verb with the suffix /-i/. Their meaning can also be derived from another verbal form. For example, I have never come across a /ma-ma9ani-/, which would mean `to eat out of (something), as an active corresponding to /pa9an-an/: 1. `that which can be eaten out of' (e.g. a large leaf); 2. `from which one usually eats (a plate or a dish); 3. `that which has been eaten into (by a disease)' (referring to marks left on the limbs by, for example, an eruptive skin disease...Such derived substantives represent a place where that which the verb represents usually takes place, or must take place...The suffix /-an/, just as the suffix /-i/, can, moreover, not only refer to a plural, but also \to the repeated occurrence\ of the thing represented by the verb, or to \its occurring on and off\, for example, /dalan-an/ can also mean \where it is customary for someone to walk\...The suffix /-an/ seldom denotes a direct object, but an example is /suru-an/ `messenger who is sent', from /ma-nuru/. /Suru-suru-an/ (repetition of the stem-word) is, however, far more often found...where such a word has not been taken from Minangkabau or Malay /-an/, representing /-i/, also means a plural, or repetition, or frequency ... (The second kind of nominal verb) has the suffix /-an/. a. When verbs of this kind are derived from substantives, the suffix indicates \place\ and the subject is, therefore, represented by this verb as being a place where what the stem-word means can be seen (e.g. /panas-an/ `to sweat' = the place where the sweat (/panas/) is; /ro9it-an/ `to be bothered by flies' = something where flies (/ro9it/) are to be found), b. when this kind of nominal verb is derived from a verb, the subject is other than the stem-word, i.e. a person who is affected by what the stem-word represents (e.g. /9ol9ol-an/ `be bored' : /9ol9ol/ `boring', c. the suffix further strengthens what is represented by the stem-word and the derived form then means \taking place continually\, or \occurring extensively\ (e.g. /borat-an/ `be very laden' : /borat/ `heavy'; d. these verbs also mean \an acquiring of\, or \a losing of\, as a state (e.g. /mate-an/ `having deaths, of someone whose soldiers have been slain'; e. when they are derived from a qualificative verb, these verbs have the accent on the suffix and indicate that the quality exists to a greater degree (e.g. /gabe-a'n/ `to be richer' : /gabe'/ `rich', /datu-a'n/ `to be a more skillful /datu/' ... Words ending in a vowel can insert an /n/ before the suffix (e.g. /dae-n-an/, from /dae/) (van der Tuuk 1971:161, 196ff) LPG /-an/ a noun + /-an/, most often a reduplicated noun, specifies a large variety of the thing signified by the single-morpheme noun' (e.g. /bata9/ `tree' : /bata9-bata9-an/ `all kinds of trees'; verbal roots combine with /-an/ to form nouns signifying the result of the action of the verb: /cinci9/ `carry (something light)' : /cinci9-an/ `that which is carried', /aji/ `to chant' : /aji-an/ `the chant', /xato9/ `to come' : /xato9-an/ `guests, the people coming'; partial reduplication + /-an/ functions as a circumfix, combining with some intransitive verb roots meaning to cook, expressing a variety of ingredients used in the cooking process: /gulay/ `to make soup' : /ga-gulay-an/ `vegetables', /paja?/ `to boil something' : /pa-paja?-an/ `greens for boiling'; this combination also occurs with a few adjective and intransitive verb roots to give the abstraction of the root meaning: /taway/ `to teach' : /ta-taway-an/ `teaching, instruction', /demon/ `like' : /da-demon-an/ `a liking' BM /-an/ suffix with locative sense, where what the base-word says happens, is, or comes; afflicted with BGG /-an/ suffix forming adjectives. The suffix /-an/ is actually local, and in the second instance temporal, and it thus gives the place and time at which or in which the meaning of the stem word is realized...Examples of adjectives with the suffix /-an/ are: /bulu9-an/ `loud, of sound' (from /bulu9/ `throat', /boo-an/ `evil-smelling' (from /boo/ `stench'), /buku-an/ `strong' (from /buku/ `bone'), /mon-doso-an/ `be taboo' (from /doso/ `a taboo')...The collective function of /-an/ which is found in some other languages is seen is /osoa-an/ `to marry' (from /soa/ `spouse') ... In other cases the meaning of the stem word is not available in Banggai, and hence the precise meaning of the suffix /-an/ cannot be determined UMA /-a/ the basic sense of the suffix /-a/ is locative, although this basic sense is applied and extended in a variety of directions, so that there is often little or nothing of a local function left to perceive. As for the relationship of /-a/ to the similarly local suffix /-i/, it can be said in general that /-i/ is found in verbal, /-a/ in nominal forms. There are, however, also many exceptions to this rule ... a. when added to a noun derived from a verb or adjective /-a/ denotes the place or time in which the action takes place or the condition in question prevails; this suffix also occurs with forms that are prefixed with /ka-/ and a possessive pronoun; b. /-a/ is added to (underived) nouns in the sense `having, supplied with, suffering from. These forms are adjectives, and have no prefix MAK /-a9/ 1. suffix used to form passive nouns: that on which, in which, with which something is done (e.g. /do9ko?/ `back (anat.)' : /do9kok-a9/ `carriage', /at-ta?gala?/ `to hold, keep ahold of' : /ta?gall-a9/ `handle', /ente9/ `stand, stand up' : /ente9-a9/ `place where one stands, position'); 2. suffix used to form deverbal adjectives or nouns with a passive sense, and carrying an implication of possibility or desirability; 3. suffix used to form adjectives with the meaning `afflicted with, suffering from' (e.g. /kaluara/ `ant' : /kaluar-a`9/ `covered with ants', /bulala?/ `white spot on the cornea' : /bulalakk-a9/ `have a white spot on the cornea'; 4. substitute for the more commonly used /-a99a9/, which expresses the comparative; here also belong indications of place and time in comparison with other place and time indicators; 5. suffix in connection with /siapa/ and /pira9-/ `how much', with the meaning `how much not'; 6. verbal suffix with the meaning `do something for the benefit of, do something with something, do something because of something, do something at a certain point in time' CHM /-an/ attributive suffix. It is difficult to find an appropriate name for this suffix. It is usually added to nouns. The affixed form then describes something that has attributes or features of the stem... The stem usually, but not always, takes the infix /-in-/ (e.g. /bosbos/ `skin rash' : /b-in-esbus-an/ `condition of having a skin rash', /chugo?/ `sap, juice' : /chigu?-an/ `salty fish sauce', /palao?an/ `woman' : /p-in-alao?an-an/ `effeminate male' or `having attributes of woman', /pao/ `odor' : /pagu-an/ `smelly') OC: ROV /-ana/ suffix of location (e.g. /huhuve/ `bathe' : /huhuve-ana/ `bathing place, bath') NOTE: */-an/ is one of the more important affixes that can be reconstructed for PAN and PMP. The reflexes in such languages as Atayal, Tagalog, Timugon Murut and Chamorro show that PAN_*/-an/ probably could co-occur with */-in-/ in past temporal expressions, and examples in other languages suggest that the final element in PWMP_*/ka-/(stem)/-an/ was identical to */-an/. Reflexes of */-an/ are often the exclusive or principle morphological means of expressing the `locative focus' in Philippine languages, and at the same time are commonly used to derive nouns of location. It is, however, perhaps an oversimplification to associate */-an/ exclusively with semantic properties that can be characterized in a straightforward sense as `locative'. To judge from its functioning reflexes in modern Formosan and Philippine languages, and from its fossilized reflexes in other languages, */-an/ had multiple functions (alternatively, we might recognize more than one homophonous suffix). Thus, many of the languages of western Borneo have a form /tapan/ `winnowing basket' (active verb: /napan/ `to winnow grain') which reflects */taSep/ `up and down movement of grains being winnowed' + */-an/, here receiving a more natural universal interpretation as instrumental rather than locative. Particularly interesting is */tian-an/ `pregnant' (from */tian/ `abdomen' + */-an/), found in a number of WMP and OC languages, since here the suffix clearly was used adjectivally in PMP. Like */-en/, reflexes of */-an/ sometimes mean `inflicted with' or `suffering from' the referent of the base (Bolaang Mongondow, Makasarese, Chamorro). In general the use of */-an/ decreases sharply as one moves southward from the Philippines, and eastward in Indonesia. The evidence for POC */-an/ is slim, but difficult to dismiss, although it probably was something of a relic affix in the eastern region of the Austronesian-speaking world even at this early time. #shrub, #tree, #%Abroma augusta% (3) */anabu/ shrub or small tree: %Abroma augusta L.% WMP: ISG /anabo'/ a malvaceous tree with red or yellow flowers, and entire leaves that affect the skin like nettles. The fibers of its bark are used for binding purposes IBG /anabo/ small tree: %Abroma augusta L.%(Madulid) ILK /anabo/ small tree: %Abroma augusta L.% (Madulid) ISINAY /anafu/ small tree: %Abroma augusta L.% (Madulid) HAN /anabu'/ small tree (%Abroma augusta L.%); the leaves are used to rub on swollen parts of the body; the bast fibers of the inner bark are used extensively for making twisted bowstrings CEB /anabu'/ shrub or small tree which produces strong bark fiber of commercial importance: %Abroma augusta% PAL /lab/ bush in cocoa family (bark used for cord): %Abroma augusta L.% NOTE: Also ISG_/anabno'/ `a malvaceous tree with red or yellow flowers', IBAN_/n~abu?/ `grass sp.', MLG_/ada'bo/ `a tree (%Ficus% sp.); if eaten to excess the fruit is said to cause a vomiting of blood'. PAL_/lab/ (rather than **/9elab/) suggests that unstressed initial vowels in trisyllables were lost prior to the addition of word-initial /9/. #long (2) */anaduq/ long (of objects) dbl. */adaduq/ WMP: ITB /anaru?/ long (of objects) RD /anaru/ long (of objects) CMP: BIMA /naru/ long (of objects) PAM */nadu/ long (of objects) #dehortative, #exclamation (3) */ana9/ dehortatory exclamation WMP: HAN /ana9ana'9/ an exclamation expressing a threat or boast, somewhat in the sense of ``you'll see!'' IBAN /ana9/ in prohibitions: don't; you must, don't fail to #cheek (3) */anapi9/ cheek WMP: WBM /enapi9/ cheek MB (I) /napi9/ cheek SGH /pani9/ (< M) cheek NOTE: Also CEB_/a'pi9/ `cheek'. The direction of metathesis assumed in this comparison is arbitrary, but is motivated in part by the observation that nominal bases with a reflex of initial */n/ are less common than nominal bases with a reflex of initial */p/ in most of the languages of Indonesia and the Philippines. #echo (2) */ani9al/ echo WMP: HAN /ani9a'l/ echo CMP: ASI /ninal/ echo NOTE: Also BKL_/anini9a'l/ `echo, reverberation'. Possibly */qani-ni9al/, with a variant of the */qali/kali-/ prefix, and haplology both in Hanuno'o and in Asilulu. #snake (2) */anipa/ large snake sp. WMP: ISG /anni'pa/ an exceedingly dangerous, very large, dark green, venomous snake with a big head LgW /nipah/ snake MURIK /n~ipa?/ snake NAR /nipah/ snake BIN /n~ipa/ snake MNY /anipe/ snake SIANG /n~ipo?/ snake TUNJUNG /nipa?/ snake CMP: NGA /nipa/ kind of large snake NOTE: Also LD_/menipeh/ `snake', KEL_/menipeh/ `generic for poisonous snakes', KIPUT_/lipah/ `snake', LgT_/lipeh/ `snake', MIRI_/n~ipah/ `snake', MUK_/dipa/ `snake', PAKU_/adipe/ `snake', SAMIHIM_/undipe/ `snake', KAPUAS_/handipe?/ `snake'. NGA_/nipa/ may reflect PMP_*/nipay/ `snake'. #roam (3) */ansaw/ roam about WMP: KAD /ansau/ roam about, go astray IBAN /ansau/ look about in search of anything TB /anso/ roam or rove about; idle around with nothing to do BAR /anco/ force one's way through grass and bushes; wander in the wilderness #fruit, #plant, #%Pisonia umbellifera% (2) */anuli9/ a fruit-bearing plant: %Pisonia umbellifera% WMP: HAN /anuli'9/ sp. of tree: %Pisonia umbellifera Seem.% CMP: MGG /nuli9/ a plant with fruit that grows in clusters and is used for glue: %Pisonia umbellifera% OC: NGG /nuli/ tree with yellowish leaves, used as spinach NOTE: Verheijen_(1984) compares MGG_/nuli9/ with CEB_/anuli9/, a form which does not appear in Wolff_(1972). #smoke (3) */anuqus/ smoke WMP: HAN /a'nus/ smoke, as from a cooking fire CEB /anu'?us/ soot MATU /anus/ smoke (Ray 1913) KANOWIT /anus/ smoke (Ray 1913) NOTE: Also BAL_/andus/ `smoke', KOM_/nuh/ `smoke', MGG_/nus/ `smoke', NGA_/nu/ `smoke, cloud, dust cloud; to smoke, whirl upward; turbid, clouded over'. #plait (2) */an~am/ plait (mats, baskets, etc.) dbl. */an~em/, */ayam/ WMP: TIR /onom/ to weave LgT /an~i:m/ to weave BIN /an~am/ weaving MUK /an~am/ plait, plaiting UJ /an~am/ plait, weave (as mats) KAY /an~am/ weaving; to weave (e.g. baskets); plaits of anything; to plait KEN /an~am/ woven IBAN /an~am/ weave (of baskets and mats), braid, plait MAL /an~am/ plaiting; braiding; making mats and baskets or wattled fences; interweaving SND /an~am/ plaiting (as of rattan or bamboo) " /an~am-an/ what is plaited, plaitwork MAD /an~am/ plaiting; braiding " /an~am-an/ what is plaited or braided PS */anam/ to weave (mats, baskets) SAN /ana9/ an ornament plaited of leaves GOR /walamo/ weaving, woven " /moh-alamo/ to weave TIALO /an~am/ weaving of a mat TAE' /anan/ plait, weave MAK /ana9/ plaiting, weaving " /pa99-ana9/ weave bamboo or rattan around something WOL /ana/ plait CMP: KED /ana9/ weave, braid SEL /an/ plaiting of mats, baskets, etc. FOR /anan/ plaiting of baskets, fish weirs, etc. KEI /anan/ plaiting of baskets and mats PAU /ana/ to plait, weave SHWNG: BULI /yanam/ to plait, weave (as mats) NUM /yanem/ to plait, weave OC: GLB /ana/ term used in mat weaving to designate a certain width FIJ /yana-yana/ loosely plaited or woven, as of mats ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma-an~am/ plait, weave (mats, baskets) WMP: BIN /m-an~am/ to weave MUK /m-an~am/ to plait KAY /m-an~am/ to weave KEN /m-an~am/ to weave JAR /m-en~am/ plait, braid, weave RHA /m-n~am/ to weave ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-an~am/ plait, weave (mats, baskets) WMP: BI /me9-an~am/ plait (laths, pandanus leaves, etc.), as in making a mat or basket " /me9-an~am rambut/ plait or braid hair SND /9-an~am/ plait a mat MAD /9-an~am/ to plait or braid SAN /ma9-ana9/ plait (baskets, etc., but not hair) TIALO /mo9-an~amE/ weave a mat TAE' /ma9-anan/ to plait, weave MAK /a9-ana9/ to plait, weave ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */an~am-en/ what has been plaited or woven WMP: BI /an~am-an/ what has been plaited or woven; things that have been plaited " /an~am-an rambut/ a plait or braid of hair GOR /walam-olo/ woven NOTE: Also OJ_/anam/ `plait, weave, twine; compose', JAV_/anam/ `woven, braided', KMB_/9ana9u/ `to plait, as a mat', /pa-9ana9u/ `plaitwork'. PMP_*/an~am/ clearly referred to the plaiting of mats or baskets, as against the weaving of cloth (*/tenun/), and probably the plaiting of hair (PWMP_*/apid/). It remains unclear how it differed semantically from PMP_*/batuR/ `plait, weave'. #plait, #braid (2) */an~em/ plait, braid dbl. */an~am/ WMP: BIL /an+m/ weave a mat SML /anom/ weave a mat MAL /an~am/ plaiting, braiding, making mats and baskets or wattled fences; interweaving BGS /ane9/ braid, plait, twine, weave (baskets, mats, but not cloth) CMP: ROTI /ane/ braid, plait, twine, weave (baskets, mats, but not cloth) #child, #offspring; #son, #daughter; #interest (loan) (2) */aNak/ child, offspring; son, daughter; interest on a loan F: TSOU /me-ah?o/ give birth " /9-ho?6/ pregnant SIR /alak/ child PUY(T) /alak/ child, son, daughter " /la-lak/ plural of /alak/ PAI /aLak/ child; interest on deposit (Western dialect) (2) */anak/ child, offspring; son, daughter; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); young animal or plant; young; small (for its kind); dependent or component part of something larger; native, resident, inhabitant; interest on a loan WMP: YAMI /anak/ child ITB /anak/ one's child (daughter or son), as reference and a vocative term, offspring (of person or animal) ISG /ana'?/ child, son, daughter ITW /ana'k/ child " /a'nak/ children DGT /ana'k/ baby, child, son, daughter, offspring " /a'nak/ children BON /ana'k/ relative at the first generation level below ego; child; nephew; niece; son; daughter " /an?a'k/ offspring (plural) KAN /ana'k/ child, infant, offspring; son, daughter; boy, lad, girl, lass; young, whelp, pup, cub; shoot, sprout, young plant ILK /ana'k/ child, son, daughter; interest IFG /ana'k/ son, daughter; sibling; may sometimes be used in the sense of nephew or niece PGS /ana'k/ child, offspring KAP /ana'k/ child " /a:nak/ children TAG /ana'k/ offspring; son, daughter " /ana'k sa li'gaw/ bastard HAN /ana'k/ child, offspring, i.e., son or daughter; with all such kinship whenever one wishes to be specific as to sex; e.g. /ana'k lala'ki/ `son'; young, youthful, referring to persons AKL /ana'k/ godchild; become a godparent, be a godparent HLG /ana'k/ child BTK /ana'k/ child, young person; offspring, i.e., son or daughter " /ana'k ka baba'y/ girl, young female (not daughter) " /ana'k ka lala'ki/ boy, young male (not son) CEB /ana'k/ son, daughter; give birth; happen to have for a child " /ana'k sa gawa's/ illegitimate child MSK /ana'k/ child; offspring WBM /anak/ offspring MAR /anak/ offspring, brood TIR /onok/ offspring, egg, fruit; all consanguineal relatives in descending generations " /onok kayew/ fruit of a tree " /onok manuk/ chicken egg KAD /anak/ child KEL /anak/ child, baby " /anak n-alap/ adopted child LgT /ana?/ child BIN /anak/ child; dependent part MUK /anak/ child, offspring " /anak lay/ son " /anak mahew/ daughter KAY /anak/ child; the young of plants, animals, etc. " /anak amu9/ adopted child " /anak hedu9/ stepchild KEN /anak/ child NgD /anak/ child, offspring (human or animal) " /anak rear/ interest on a loan (/rear/ = `money') " /anak sarau/ illegitimate child BJR /anak/ child MLG /a'naka/ child, the young of anything; anyone treated with affection; affectionate and respectful mode of address " /anak-anaka/ an allowance made for a loan or debt " /a'nak-andri'ana/ petty princes among the various tribes MALOH /anak/ child " /anak ambu/ adopted child " /anak biu/ orphan " /anak lawan/ bastard BUKAT /anak/ child SGH /anak/ child " /bir-anak/ give birth IBAN /anak/ child, son, daughter, offspring, youngster, junior; small, a little, young " /anak ambu?/ adopted child " /anak ampa9/ bastard " /anak duit/ interest on money " /anak patu/ orphan (with neither parent) " /anak tiri?/ stepchild " /tunjok anak/ little finger JAR /ana?/ child RHA /anak/ daughter, son; nephew, niece: one's brother's child MAL /anak/ child; young (of animal); native (of a country); one (of a party, set or series); important component part; smaller of two " /anak a9kat/ adopted child " /anak anji9/ lower part of calf-muscle " /anak genta/ clapper of a bell " /anak lidah/ uvula " /anak piatu/ orphan " /anak raja/ prince " /anak tiri/ stepchild " /anak ua9/ interest on money BI /anak/ offspring; young person or animal; person who originates from or was born in (a given country, area, etc.); person belonging to a certain occupation (family, etc.), as /anak kapal/ `crewmember of a ship'; small part of some larger thing, as /anak baju/ `undershirt', /anak bukit/ `small hill (at foot of mountain)', /anak air/ `small tributary stream' " /anak gampa9/ illegitimate child MOKEN /ana:t/ offspring, child ACH /an+?/ child; young shoot; pit, stone, kernel, seed; constituent part of something " /an+? g+nta/ clapper of a bell " /an+? g+tue"9/ adopted child " /an+? tit/ clitoris " /an+? uy/ stepchild GAYO_ /anak/ child KB /anak/ child; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); young of animals; sprout of a plant; descendant; inhabitant; figuratively of things that are small for their kind, in contrast with /indu9/ for things that are large for their kind TB /anak/ son, of man or animal; BS (m.s.), ZS (w.s.); son of all other same generation lineage mates; interest from money " /i-anak-hon/ child in general without regard to sex DPB /anak/ son; young of an animal " /anak raja/ said to persons whose behavior is praiseworthy SIM /ana?/ child, boy NIAS /ono/ child, children; boys; calf; suckling pig; plant shoot " /ono dorosi/ clapper of a bell " /ono fo~na/ stepchild " /ono gana?a/ interest on a loan " /ono horo~/ illegitimate child ENG /e-ada/ child REJ /ano?/ child, offspring " /ano? apa9/ illegitimate child, bastard " /Ano? Dalam/ royal family and dynasty of Bencoolen before British occupation in 1685 LPG /ana?/ child, offspring OJ /anak/ child; smaller of two things (as a small mountain at the foot of a bigger one) JAV /anak/ offspring; nephew, niece; young plant sprout " /anak kuwalon/ stepchild MAD /ana?/ child BAL /anak/ person, human individual; the word originally meant `child' as in Malay ...; it is the widest word for `human being', and needs to be qualified with other nouns or with adjectives to give it content; alone it may even be used with nouns indicating animals (/be'mase' ento anak/ `those goldfish'), and with personal pronouns SAS /anak/ child (in contrast with adults); young of animals; sometimes child in general; smaller part of something larger, of small for its kind " /anak akon/ adopted child who does not have the right to succession " /anak iwo?/ orphan " /anak jentik/ clitoris " /anak lir/ uvula " /anak ora ora/ illegitimate child " /anak peras/ adopted child who has the right to succession PS */anak/ child SAN /ana?/ child (in contrast with adults; otherwise one uses /dario?/ PM */anak/ offspring, child (of someone) TNTB /anak/ child, in relation to adults, hence `offspring'; used as a vocative term KAIDIPANG /anako/ child GOR /wala?o/ child " /wala?a wuwato?o/ stepchild UMA /ana?/ child BAR /ana/ child, young one (always as a qualifier of another noun); sometimes also used of a part of some larger thing " /ana ntau/ someone else's child " /ana ilu/ orphan " /ana ndarata/ stepchild " /ana 9kadoe/ illegitimate child MDR /ana?/ child, offspring' BGS /ana?/ child, offspring' MAK /ana?/ child; son, daughter; young of animals, young plant; smaller part of a larger thing " /ana? ao/ stepchild " /ana? buni/ illegitimate child " /ana? kerae9/ prince's children MORI /ana/ child MUNA /ana/ child WOL /ana/ child, offspring', young (of animals), small and separate part of a whole " /ana awo/ stepchild " /ana maelu/ orphan " /ana-na baluwu o peropa/ crown prince PAL /9a'lek/ child; baby; anyone younger than speaker; sweetheart; fiance(e) " /9a'lek er a oreomel/rael/ bastard CMP: KOM /ana?/ child; young; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); son, daughter; give birth, breed BIMA /ana/ child; anything that is small " /ana cempe/ adopted child MGG /anak/ child; part of something; give birth, bear a child; young, small (of animals) " /anak kerae'9/ nobility (Makasarese loan) " /anak tinu/ orphan RMB /anak/ child; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.); sprout of plant; interest NGA /ana/ child; person, human being; disciple, follower, member; inhabitant, resident; protege'; ward (person); title of distinction; young, small LIO /ana/ child SIKA /?anak/ small, of animals LAM /ana-n/ child KED /ana?/ child KMB /ana/ child; young; small " /ana tau wihi/ calf of the leg SAVU /ana/ child ROTI /ana/ child, in comparison with adult; young of animals; small (used as both predicate and attributive adjective " /na-ana/ have a child; accept or consider as a child; develop shoots, of a plant " /na-ana-k/ call someone `child' " /ma-ana/ small, become smaller ATONI /anax/ child LETI /ana/ child; small " /an-wali/ family, consanguineal relative MOA /ana/ child; small; bear children ERAI /ana-(n)/ little, small; child SEL /ana/ lineage; child of; offspring YMD /anak/ child in the sense of offspring; BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.) NGAIBOR /ana/ child KEI /yana-n/ child (in relation to adults); young; component part of something; small (for its kind) " /yana-n sosalo^k/ illegitimate child ELAT /anako/ child MASIWANG /yana/ child PAU /ana/ child HITU /ana/ child BURU /ana/ child " /ana-n/ child; small, baby SOB /ana?/ child " /baka-ana?/ bear children, give birth " /anak katua?/ orphan " /anak makan~/ stepchild " /anak una/ adopted child SEKAR /kuk-anak/ child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */a-anak-an/ doll WMP: DGT /a-ana'k/ toy doll ILK /a-anak-a'n/ womb, uterus, matrix BJR /a-anak-an/ doll ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */aN-aNak/ child(?) F: THAO /al-alak/ child (2) */an-anak/ child(?) WMP: ISG /an-ana'?/ child, son, daughter ILK /an-ana'k/ doll BON /an-annak/ doll " /an-?anak/ child, one who has not yet entered puberty CMP: WAT /an-anak/ child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */da9-sa-anak/ relatives WMP: KEL /de9-anak/ brothers and sisters MAL /da9sanak/ relatives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */hin-anak-an/ brood, flock, lots of children WMP: [GAD /in-an-anak/ bilateral personal kindred (formerly the effective units in revenge and wergild (Lebar 1975:101)] KAN /in-anak-a'n/ having young ones, having a child. Applied to animals and to unmarried women who have a natural child CEB /hin-a9k-an/ hen that has raised a brood BM /in-anak-an/ family, lineage ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */i-anak/ give birth WMP: DGT /i-yenak/ be born BON /i-?ana'k/ give birth, bear a child " /i-yana'k/ nephew, niece TAG /i-ana'k/ give birth to (an offspring) TNTB /i-anak/ piece that is placed in or on something else ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */ka-anak/ have a child WMP: BI /k-anak k-anak/ small child (usually below seven years of age) SAS /k-anak/ child, young person MDR /ke-ana?/ have a child CMP: ROTI /ka-anak/ have a child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ma-anak/ ? F: PAI /ma-aLak/ be disturbed by (too many) children (2) */ma-anak/ bear children, give birth WMP: ITW /m-a'nak/ give birth; parents TAG /ma-ana'k/ having many offspring NgD /m-anak/ bring forth, give birth to, beget; bear interest KB /me-anak/ be like one's own child in one's house, said of a non-family member MAK /m-ana?/ get a child (of father and mother), bear, give birth ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */maka-anak/ consider as one's child WMP: KAP /maka-anak/ capable of giving birth OJ /mak-a_nak/ have as a child, consider as one's child TNTB /maka-anak/ consider as one's child, get a child, bear a child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */mampaR-anak aken/ give birth to WMP: BI /memper-anak-kan/ give birth to children BAR /mampo-ana/ bring forth, bear, give birth MDR /mappe-ana-9/ give birth ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-anak/ give birth WMP: ITB /ma9-anak/ children ITW /ma9-ana'k/ sponsor in baptism ILK /ma9-ana'k/ sponsor, godparent IFG /ma9-ana'k/ godfather, godmother BON /ma9-ana'k/ adopt a child; sponsor a child for baptism, have a godchild PGS /man-ana'k/ bear a child KAP /ma9-ana'k/ give birth IBAN /(ma)9-anak/ call someone a child BI /me9-anak sema9/ work as a servant, do menial labor " /me9-anak su9ai/ stream profusely (blood, etc.) NIAS /ma9-ono/ give birth SAS /9-anak/ give birth, bear a child BM /mo9-anak/ young LPG /9-ana?/ have children JAV /9-anak/ call someone or regard someone as one's own child MAK /a9gi-ana?/ add a third strand in making rope ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-anak-i/ have children, increase WMP: KB /9-anak-i/ yield interest; play the small gong (/pe9-anak/) TB /ma9-anah-i/ lend money with the purpose of earning interest DPB /me9-anak-i/ yield interest (money) OJ /ma9-anak-i/ have children ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */maR-anak/ give birth; have a child WMP: ITB /mi-anak/ give birth ISG /max-an-ana'?/ give birth DGT /meg-enak/ give birth ILK /ag-ana'k/ give birth, be delivered, bring forth young TAG /mag-ana'k/ act as sponsor or godparent in baptism, confirmation or wedding; give birth HLG /mag-ana'k/ bear a child, give birth; be a godparent to a child during baptism or confirmation KAD /mag-anak/ bear children, bring forth children, generate, give birth BJR /bar-anak/ give birth " /bar-anak-an/ have a child NgD /ba-anak/ have children IBAN /ber-anak/ give birth; bear interest (money) MAL /ber-anak/ be possessed of children; give birth ACH /m+?-an+?/ give birth TB /mar-anak/ have a son or sons DPB /mer-anak-anak-en/ having lots of children SIM /mal-ana?/ have children, bear children, give birth NIAS /mo?-ono/ have a child, get a child, give birth OJ /m-a_nak/ to have (bring forth) a child JAV /m-anak/ to reproduce (of animals, crudely of people) BAL /m-anak/ give birth; be born (not usually of human beings) " /m-anak-an/ produce young, give birth (usually of animals) " /balyan m-anak-an/ midwife " /m-anak-a9/ yield interest (money) SAS /ber-anak/ give birth, bear a child SAN /mah-ana?/ get a child, receive a child " /meh-ana?/ give birth, bear a child TNTB /m(a)-anak/ bear, give birth UMA /mo?-ana?/ have a child BAR /mo-ana/ bear, give birth, have children (also said of a man) CMP: ROTI /ma-anak/ have a child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */maRe-anak/ parent and child F: PAI /mare-aLak/ parent and child " /mare-ka-aLak/ children of the same parents WMP: MLG /mi-a`naka/ used in speaking of parent (father or mother) and child BGS /mar-ana?/ with a child (as a parent sleeping with a child) " /mar-ana-9/ one family ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa-anak-an/ cause to have a child (?) WMP: CEB /pa-a9k-an/ make someone pregnant " /p-in-a-a9k-an/ illegitimate child; one who gave birth out of wedlock NgD /p-anak-an/ children, descendants MAL /p-enak-an/ nephew ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-anak/ smaller thing of a pair (?) WMP: PGS /pan-ana'k/ time or month of delivery CEB /pa9-ana'k/ sponsor in a baptism NgD /pe9-anak/ a smaller thing on or in a larger one MAL /pe9-anak/ the smaller of a pair, likened to mother and daughter KB /pe9-anak/ small gong OJ /pa9-anak/ bringing forth MAK /pa99-ana?/ the third strand added in making rope PAL /o9-a'lek/ nuclear family ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */paR-anak/ act of giving birth (?) WMP: TAG /pag-ana'k/ act or moment of parturition TIR /feg-onok/ lay an egg; bear fruit; deliver a baby IBAN /per-anak/ offspring, issue TB /par-anak/ the one who arranges the marriage for a young man (Vergouwen 1964:156) DPB /per-anak/ the father of the bridegroom or his substitute BAL /p-anak/ birth; a thing born, a child; used alone it refers to a young animal; interest on money SAN /pah-ana?/ bear a child! (passive imper.) " /peh-ana?/ bear a child! (imper.) BAR /masoso po-ana-n~a/ she had her children in rapid succession ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */paR-anak-an/ womb, uterus; birth canal WMP: MSK /pag-anak-an/ uterus, womb MAL /per-anak-an/ born, native BI /per-anak-an/ uterus, womb; mixed descendants of native population and immigrants OJ /p-a_nak-an/ woman by whom one has a child, wife MDR /pe-ana-9/ uterus, womb; mixed descendants of native population and immigrants [MAK /pamm-anakk-a9/ uterus, womb] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */sa-anak/ (?) (probably = */esa/ `one' + */anak/) WMP: KAN /s-a'nak/ have many children, young shoots, sprouts; have numerous offspring MAL /s-anak/ kindred = /sa-anak/ (children of one and the same descent). Used of blood relationship, esp. (Minangkabau) on the distaff side BAR /kami sa-ana/ we with our children " /tau sa-ana/ both parents, or either on, with their children ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */sa9a-anak/ litter, brood WMP: ILK /sa9a-anak-a'n/ litter TNTB /sa9a-anak/ a `nest of children', a brood. Also used of people, as in /sa9a anak sera/ `they were born at the same time/they are twins' ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */um-anak/ give birth, bear a child WMP: BON /om-ana'k/ give birth, bear a child IFG /um-ana'k/ give birth to a child TAG /um-ana'k/ give birth CEB /um-a-a'nak/ about to give birth OJ /um-anak aken/ give birth to ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ka-anak-an/ time of birth (?) WMP: YAMI /k-anak-a'n/ child ITB /ka-anak-an/ young man or woman, bachelor or maiden ITW /k-a'nak-an/ nephew, niece ILK /ka-anak-a'n/ nephew, niece BON /ka-anak-an/ nephew, niece TAG /ka-a'nak-an/ last embryonic stage during which birth is expected; month of child delivery MAK /ka-anakk-a9/ birth; be born at a certain time " /allo ka-anakk-a9/ birthday ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */kam-anak-en/ nephew, niece WMP: TM /akon/ sibling's child KAD /kam-anak-on/ stepchild, nephew BIS(B) /anak nak-on/ sibling's child SA'BAN /anak m-enak-en/ sibling's child KIPUT /anak m-ena-an/ sibling's child BIN /anak m-enak-en/ sibling's child MUK /nak-en anak/ sibling's child MATU /nak-en lay/mero/ nephew/niece MNY /ak-en/ sibling's child KAPUAS /ak-en/ sibling's child BJR /kam-anak-an/ nephew, niece IBAN /ak-an/ distant cousin; polite form of address to a younger person ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak-an/ give birth (?) WMP: CEB /a9k-an/ having given birth " /a9k-an-un/ for people to be prolific in childbirth MSK /anak-an/ give birth BJR /anak-an/ fingerlings of fish BI /anak-an/ interest on money JAV /anak-an/ the young of an animal; doll; small, of natural phenomena; copy, duplicate; drawer, section, compartment; interest on borrowed money SAS /anak-a9/ give birth; lend money to earn interest ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak-en/ BC (m.s.), ZC (w.s.) WMP: ITB /anak-en/ nephew, niece; foster child, one considered as a child, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, spouse of nephew or niece IFG /anak-o'n/ adopt a child as son or daughter BON /anak-en/ adopt a child; sponsor a child for baptism; have a godchild TAG /anak-i'n/ adopt (x) as one's own child; act as sponsor, godparent to (x) HLG /ana'k-un/ bear a child, give birth; be a godparent to a child during a baptism or confirmation CEB /ana'k-un/ for people or animals to be prolific in childbirth MSK /anak-un/ nephew, niece WBM /enak-en/ niece, nephew; a person's relative of his child's generation KAD /anak-on/ be born, of children KB /anak-en/ of a wasp's nest, already containing eggs; of a egg, have the beginnings of an embryo OJ /wwa9 anak-en/ an intended play on words: childhood disease, and sickness of pining after a cousin? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak anak/ small child WMP: BON /an-annak/ doll CEB /anak a'nak/ adopted child; in a child's game, the pretend child BI /anak anak/ many children; a small child KB /anak anak/ brook, tributary stream; children, in contrast with adults TB /anah anak/ small club or cudgel; shuttle of a loom DPB /anak anak/ child, without regard to sex SIM /ana? ana?/ small child OJ /anak anak/ give birth to a child (calve, etc.); consider as one's child " /m-a_nak anak/ bring forth a child JAV /anak anak/ to have children BAL /anak anak/ people, persons (as individuals, as opposed to /wo9/ which = a person or persons as members of a category) BGS /ana? ana?/ many children; a small child MAK /ana? ana?/ child (immature person), young man, young woman; servant, follower; doll of native manufacture; part of a casting net ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak anak-an/ doll (?) WMP: KAP /anak anak-an/ adopted child TAG /ana'k anak-an/ foster child BI /anak anak-an/ doll " /anak anak-an mentimun/ child adopted for one's wife (lit. `cucumber doll') OJ /anak anak-an/ doll or anything (which is treated and fondled) like a baby OJ /anak anak-(an)/ pupil of the eye ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak apij/ twin WMP: KAY /anak apin/ twin [MALOH /anak kampit/ twin] [IBAN /anak sapit/ twin] [MAL /anak kembar/ twin] [SAS /anak (r)indu/ twin] CMP: [MGG /anak dape'r/ twin] [NGA /ana doa/ twin; siblings of the same sex] [KMB /ana ndua/ twin] [ERAI /ana kapu(n) rua/ twins] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak bahi/babahi/binahi/ ZC (m.s.), FZC (m.s.); ZH (m.s.); wife-taking lineage WMP: MLG /ana bavy/ Z (m.s.) [KB /anak beru/ ZS (m.s.), FZS (m.s.); wife-takers] [TB /anak boru/ ZS (m.s.), FZS (m.s.); wife-takers] CMP: MGG /anak wina/ wife-takers RMB /anak wina/ wife-takers KMB /ana wini/ Z (m.s.) SAVU /na weni/ Z (m.s.) [ATONI /an feto/ wife-takers] [ERAI /ana-hata/ ZC (m.s.)] [HUAULU /haha-pina/ wife-takers] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak buaq/ relative (?) WMP: IBAN /anak buah/ a relation MAL /anak buah/ followers; tribesmen; clansmen TB /anak bua/ subjects, serfs BI /anak buah/ people who belong in one's family, (nation, etc.) JAV /anak buah/ crew; group under the command of an officer, or employees under a boss MAK /ana? bua-na pa?rasa9a9a/ inhabitant of an area CMP: NGA /ana bua/ children of the same father, but different mother KAM /ana hua/ illegitimate child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak daRa/ maiden, virgin, girl of marriageable age WMP: ACH /an+? dara/ marriageable girl MAL /anak dara/ maiden, virgin OJ /anak-d.ara/ maid, virgin TAE' /anak dara/ maiden, young woman; Z (b.s.) [MAK /ana? rare/ young girl form 10-12 years of age] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak ma-Ruqanay/(la)laki/ BC (w.s.); MBC (w.s.); BW (w.s.) wife-giving lineage WMP: MLG /ana dahy/ B (w.s.) TAE' /anak muane/ B (w.s.) CMP: MGG /anak rona/ wife-givers RMB /anak rana/ wife-givers KMB /ana mini/ B (w.s.) SAVU /na mone/ B (w.s.) [ATONI /an mone/ wife-givers] ERAI /ana-mane/ BC (w.s.) [HUAULU /haha-mana/ wife-givers ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak a ma-iRaq/ neonate (lit. `red child') WMP: [KEL /anak sia?/ neonate (lit. `red child')] BI /anak me'rah/ neonate (lit. `red child') [DPB /anak embara/ baby, suckling, newborn (lit. `red child')] [BAR /ana ndoro/ neonate (lit. `red child') CMP: [MGG /anak wara/ baby (lit. `red child')] [RMB /anak wara/ baby (lit. `red child')] [KMB /ana rara/ suckling, infant (lit. `red child')] ERAI /ana mera mera-s/ little children, babies (lit. `red children') ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak a qulu/ first-born, eldest child (lit. `head child') WMP: [IBAN /anak tuai/ eldest child, heir] [RHA /anak khua/ firstborn, oldest child] [MAL /anak sulo9/ firstborn child] ACH /an+? ule`e" bara/ firstborn child [NIAS /ono hene/ firstborn (of animals)] [REJ /ano? tuwai su?a9/ oldest child in family] BAR /ana uyu-e/ firstborn child CMP: RMB /anak ulu/ firstborn child [KMB /ana tuha9u/ eldest child] ROTI /ana ulu-k/ firstborn child [ERAI /ana(n) ajulu/ eldest child] [KEI /yanan ya_n/ eldest child] [SOB /ana? mantuan~/ eldest child] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak i banua/ fellow villager, fellow community-member WMP: SIM /ana? banwo/ subject (of state), serf; native of a place NIAS /ono mbanua/ common man, villager OJ /anak wanwa/ person belonging to the /wanwa/-community CMP: NGA /ana nua/ villager [ERAI /ana-hira/ the children, often used in the meaning of: villagers, the village population] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i batu/ small stones, gravel WMP: SIM /ana? batu-fatu/ small stones, gravel SAS /anak batu/ gravel CMP: KEI /wa_t yana-n/ small stone ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak i hapuy/ sparks of fire WMP: KAY /anak apuy/ sparks of fire SIM /ana? axoe/ sparks of fire ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anak i haRezan/ step or rung of a ladder WMP: BIN /anak kejan/ rung of a ladder [MAL /anak ta9ga/ rung of a ladder] ACH /an+? reunjeun/ rung of a ladder [TB /anak ni ta9ga/ rung of a ladder] SIM /ana? aeran/ rung of a ladder WOL /ana-na oda/ step of a staircase of ladder ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i kahiw/ young tree, sprout WMP: [ACH /an+? pisa9/ young banana shoots] TB /anak ni hau/ shoot, sprout [TB /anak ni gaol/ banana shoot] [SIM /ana? kaol/ banana shoot] [SAN /ana? u nanasi/ pineapple sprout] [MAK /ana? ase/ small rice haulm] CMP: [KOM /ana wana/ young palmyra palm] [BIMA /ana kalo/ banana sprout, young banana tree] ROTI /ai anak/ young tree ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i lesu9/ rice pestle WMP: SAS /anak lisu9/ rice pestle WOL /anana nosu/ pestle CMP: KEI /luhun yana-n/ rice pestle ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i lima/ little finger, pinkie WMP: [MAL /anak jari/ finger] [TB /anak ni ta9an/ little finger] [AMB /anak ni ta9an/ finger] [SIM /ana? kao/ka6_/ little finger/toe] SAS /anak ima/ little finger [PAL /9a'lek/ pinkie; small finger] CMP: ROTI /lima ku?u anak/ little finger, pinkie ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i manuk/ chick, baby chicken WMP: BAR /ana manu/ chick CMP: ROTI /manu-ana/ chick ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i mata/ pupil of the eye WMP: [MLG /anaka-ndri-maso/ pupil of the eye] MAL /anak mata/ pupil of the eye ACH /an+? mata/ pupil of the eye TB /anak ni mata/ pupil of the eye NIAS /ono ho~ro~/ pupil of the eye REJ /ano? matey/ pupil of the eye SAN /ana? u mata/ pupil of the eye BAR /ana mata/ pupil of the eye CMP: MGG /anak mata/ pupil of the eye ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i panaq/ arrow WMP: NgD /anak panah/ arrow MAL /anak panah/ arrow DPB /anak ce'ur/ arrow NIAS /ono fana/ arrow; bullet WOL /ana-na pana/ arrow CMP: KMB /na ana-na pana/ arrow ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i qaRta/ slave (?) WMP: [CEB /ana'k sa bu'hat/ laborer] [NgD /anak oloh/ slave (affectionate substitute for /jipen/)] [IBAN /anak kuli/ laborer] [MAL /anak mas/ born slave] [TB /anak soma9/ servant, slave] [DPB /anak hamba/ said to a person whose conduct is rude] [OJ /anak wesi/ servant, attendant, constant companion] MAK /ana? ata/ child of one's own slaves CMP: ROTI /ana-ata/ata-ana/ slave child [KEI /yanan pia_r/ house slave, house servant ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i sumpit/ blowpipe dart WMP: [MAL /anak damak/ blowpipe dart] [ACH /an+? b+de'/ bullet] [TB /anak (ni) bodil/ bullet] [SIM /ana? mariam/ cannot shot] [MAK /ana? ba?dili?/ bullet] [WOL /ana-na kasopu/ blowpipe dart] CMP: [BIMA /ana bedi/ bullet] MGG /anak sumpit/ blowpipe dart ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */anak i tau/ someone else's child WMP: [IBAN /anak ora9/ another person's child] [BI /anak ora9/ non-relative] BAR /ana n-tau/ someone else's child CMP: KMB /ana tau/ someone else's child NOTE: Also PR_*/valak6/ `child', REJ_/ana?/ `child, offspring', MAL_/dansanak/ `relatives', KB_/danak danak/ `child(ren), young people as against adults', /me-danak/ `childish', MAK_/ammana?/ `get a child (of father and mother), bear, give birth', PGS_/a9-ana'k/ `one who has sponsored a child at a baptism, etc.', ITB_/mi-?anak/ `bear a child', MDR_/me-ane?/ give birth; summon a child', BAL_/kep-onak-an/ `sibling's child', BI_/ke-anak anak-an/ `in a childish way or manner', WBM_/ne9-anak/ `parent', KEL_/ne9-anak/ `give birth' (probably - //9-// plus //te9-anak// `date of birth'). The following additional observations are noteworthy: 1) apart from the explicit reconstructions offered here, non-cognate compound expressions based on a reflex of */aNak/ are cited for a number of meanings, including 1. adopted child, 2. bastard/illegitimate child, 3. calf of the leg, 4. clapper of a bell, 5. clitoris, 6. nobility, 7. orphan, 8. stepchild, and 9. uvula; many or all of these may derive from compound expressions which cannot yet be reconstructed; 2) in the same category we should perhaps include the apparent cognate set TAG_/ana'k na bunso'?/ `youngest or last child', IBAN_/anak bunsu/ `youngest child', BI_/anak bu9su/ `last child', ACH_/an+? bu9su/ `youngest child, last-born', and the non-cognate forms REJ_/ano? u?ai su?a9/ `youngest child in family', MGG_/anak cucu/ `youngest child' (lit. `child of the breast'), RMB_/anak sopo/ `last-born child', KMB_/ana ka-muri/ `youngest child', ROTI_/ana muli-k/ `last-born child', ERAI_/ana(n) ai-mori/ `youngest child', KEI_/yanan warin/loisus/ `youngest child', and SOB_/ana? ipuc/ `youngest child', since TAG_/bunso'?/ appears to be a Malay loan. Given the reconstruction PMP_*/anak a qulu/ `eldest/first-born child' (lit. `head child') we would expect a parallel construction with `tail' (PMP_*/ikuR/) or `back' (PMP_*/udehi/) for the meaning `youngest/last-born child'; there is some known support for this, but to date it is confined to CMP languages; 3)some liberties have been taken with the comparative method in connection with the reconstructions for `twin', `rice mortar' and `blowpipe dart': since PMP_*/sumpit/ `blowpipe' is well-established, */anak i/ + blowpipe appears justified by the comparison given here, although only one of the languages cited happens to reflect */sumpit/; the same is true of */anak apij/ and */anak i lesu9/, since the forms for `mortar' cited in connection with a reflex of PMP_*/anak/ reflect several doublet forms rather than a single phonologically uniform etymon; 4) some widespread compounds formed with a reflex of PMP_*/anak/ clearly are a product of convergent innovation, as with `child of the lock' = `key', and `child of the school' = `pupil, student'. In addition to the affixed, reduplicated and compounded forms of PMP_*/anak/ cited above, forms such as PGS_/ana'k/ `child', /a'nak/ `children' agree with a handful of POC nouns referring to persons which indicate the plural by shifting the accent to the first syllable, or by lengthening the first syllable vowel (POC_*/papine/ `woman', */pa_pine/ `women'). These agreements suggest that an accent shift or rule of vowel lengthening was employed im PMP to indicate the plural of a small set of nouns which referred to persons. #insect, %Isoptera%, #termite, white #ant (1) */aNay/ insect of the order %Isoptera%: termite, white ant F: PAZ /alay/ termite, white ant WMP: ITB /anay/ termite, white ant ISG /an-a'nay/ small ant with black head and white body. Not a termite; if eaten it causes the abdomen to burst ITW /a'nay/ termite GAD /a'nay/ termite DGT /ane"/ termite BON /a'ney/ termite IFG /a'ne/ termite ILK /a'nay/ white ant, termite KAP /a'ne/ termite TAG /a'nay/ white ants, termites BKL /a'noy/ termite HAN /a'nay/ termite, white ant, whether found in wood or in large anthills AKL /a'nay/ termite (general term) HLG /a'nay/ termite CEB /a'nay/ termite; be infested with termites MSK /anay/ termite WBM /aney/ termite MAR /anay/ ant; attack by white ants TIR /aney/ mound-building termites KAD /t-anay/ white ant KEL /ane/ termite, white ant LgT /anay/ termite, white ant BIN /anay/ termite, white ant KEN /anay/ white ant " /9-anay/ numerous as white ants KAY /aney/ termites, white ants BJR /anay/ white ant, termite MALOH /ane/ termite MAL /anay-anay/ white ants; generic for %Termitidae% " /di-makan anay-anay/ destroyed by white ants KB /ane ane/ white ant DPB /ane ane/ white ant SIM /anae anae/ termite REJ /aney aney/ ants, termites SND /anay/ small kind of termite which seldom emerges from ground GOR /wale/ termite larva BM /anoy/ white ant BAR /ane/ termite, white ant " /ke-ane/ damaged by termites TAE' /ane/ termite, white ant MDR /ane/ termite, white ant " /me-?ane/ bustling, swarming (as with termites) BGS /ane/ termite, white ant WOL /ane/ larva of termite, white ant " /ane kumba/ beetle larva PAL /9al/ termite; termite-ridden CMP: BIMA /ane/ termite, white ant PAM */ana(y)/ termite (8) */ane/ insect of the order %Isoptera%: termite, white ant OC: LEIPON /an/ termite, white ant LON /an/ termite, white ant PAK /an/ termite, white ant MUS /ane/ termite, white ant BUG /ane/ white ant NGG /ane/ white ant " /ane-ga/ eaten with white ants, rotten " /ane-lovo/ flying ants LAU /sane/ shite ant " /sane-a/ eaten by white ant KWAIO /nale/ (< M) white ant (termite) " /nale-?a/ termite riddled, insect riddled SA'A /sane/ white ant, the food of ghosts on Malapa? " /sane-?a/ eaten by white ants AA /nare/ (< M) white ants ARS /ane/ the white ant which bores and destroys " /ane-hau/ a variety which lives in the gound; the name for its nest; these ants were thought to be incarnations of the dead (eastern and western dialects) " /sane/ white ant; to spread over, as ants (southern dialect) FIJ /yane/ sp. of moth TON /ane/ moth (or, more strictly, its larva) that eats holes in clothes, etc.; silverfish SAM /ane/ sp. of white ant (a wood pest) " /a_ne-a/ be damaged by white ants " /anea-nea/ old, ancient, as a fine mat (lit. so old as to be eaten by ants) REN /ane/ nest of white grubs, the grubs (sometimes fed to chickens); termite nest, the termites " /ane-a/ to be many /ane/; moth-eaten NAN /ane/ insect species, termite " /ane-a/ infested with /ane/ (of a tree) RAR /ane/ white ant HWN /ane/ a dermestid beetle that destroys feathers in feather-work; mites, as in chickens; ringworm; insect-eaten, gnawed " /lehu ane/ fine ashes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ma-anay/ termite-infested WMP: KAP /ma-?ane/ full of termites BKL /ma-a'noy/ be eaten by termites ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */anay-en/ eaten by termites, damaged by termites WMP: BKL /ano'y-on/ be eaten by termites TIR /aney-en/ infested by termites KB /ane-ane_-n/ damaged by white ants NOTE: Also IFG_/a'nay/ `termite', DPB_/anei/ `white ant', DPB_/cane/ `white ant', REJ_/naney/ `ants, termites', BKL_/a'nay/ `termite', BKL_/a'loy/ `termite', PS_*/uanay/ `termite', SAN_/uane/ `white ant', HAGA_/ghane/ `termite, white ant', LIO_/9ana/ `termite, white ant', WUV_/anana/ `termite, white ant', LOU_/9an/ `termite, white ant', PEN_/han/ `termite, white ant', LENKAU_/nan/ `termite, white ant', AA_/sane/ `white ant'; /sane-?a/ `eaten by white ants'. Although such apparently irregular reflexes of */anay/ as LIO_/9ana/ and LOU_/9an/ allow the reconstruction of a doublet, the variety of unexplained initial consonants in the forms cited here suggest that this probably would be an overinterpretation of the data. #groan, #cry, #pain (3a) */a'9al/ groan, cry of pain WMP: ILK /a'9al/ moan, groan softly TAG /a'9al/ prolonged cry, expressing pain, complaint, or opposition #open (mouth), #gape (2) */a9aq/ open the mouth wide dsj. */qa9ab/, */qa9ap/ WMP: SND /a9ah/ open the mouth; be open, of the mouth CMP: BIMA /a9a/ open wide (mouth) NOTE: With root */-9a(q)/ `gape, open the mouth wide'. #challenge, #confront (3) */a9at/ to challenge, confront WMP: BKL /a'9at/ to challenge MUK /a9at/ face bravely MUK /m-a9at/ bold or fearless in facing someone who is angry with you #body #odor, #stench (3) */a9(e)cej/ stench of sweaty armpits dsj. */a9(e)ce9/ WMP: BON /a9se'g/ underarm perspiration; the smell of underarm perspiration ILK /a9se'g/ stench of putrid urine AKL /a'9sod/ underarm odor CEB /a9su'd/ having body odor MAR /ansed/ offensive body odor TB /ansok/ sweat in the armpits NOTE: Also AKL_/a'9tod/ `smelling overcooked (said of food, esp. rice)', MAR_/lanse9/ `malodorous', MAL_(J)_/ba9se'9/ `smelling foully, as a bug'. An association of the meaning `repulsive odor' with the phoneme sequence */(C)a9(e)C/ (where C = consonant) is widespread in Formosa, the Philippines, and western Indonesia. #body #odor, #stench (3) */a9(e)ce9/ stench of sweaty armpits dsj. */a9(e)cej/ WMP: MAR /anse9/ malodorous DPB /ance9/ stench of sweaty armpits #stench, #odor (2) */a9(e)lem/ stench WMP: ILK /a9le'm/ stench of burning cloth OC: NGG /a9o/ emit a sour smell, as of urine NOTE: Shwa syncope did not take place in PAN_*/baqeRu/ > NGG_/vaolu/ `new'. However, the syncope and cluster reduction assumed in this form are paralleled in PAN_*/qa9eliC/ `smell of burnt rice, etc.' > NGG_/a9i/ `emit a strong smell or scent, good or bad, usually bad'. #aroma, #odor (3) */a9i/ aromatic odor WMP: TAG /a9i'/ aromatic odor of overcooked or oversteamed rice IBAN /a9i/ sweet smelling, scented NOTE: Richardson (1981) compares IBAN_/a9i/ with MAL_/wa9i/ `fragrant', but the latter is itself a loanword from Javanese (ultimately from */ba9i/). #silly, #senile, #doting (3) */a9u a9u/ silly, senile, doting WMP: CEB /a9u-a9u/ senile OB IBAN /a9u/ half-witted, silly " /ana9 a9u-a9u/ don't be silly (Scott), silly, foolish, fond (Richards) NOTE: Also MAL_/a9um/, /a9up/ `yawn, gape'. CEB_/a9ua9uh-un/ `somewhat senile' suggests */a9uh/, but the Iban cognate points instead to a final vowel. #young (3) */a9ud/ young WMP: MAR /a9od/ young; youth KEL /a9ud/ young, tender, soft (of leaves, children) NOTE: Also BKD_/a9hud/ `term of address for one's younger sibling', SGH_/a9od/ `young'. #what (2) */apa/ what? dbl. */sapa/ WMP: LD /i-apeh/ where? KEL /apeh/ which? IBAN /apa/ what? BID /apa/ matter, what is said or written MAL /apa/ what; how; which; somehow. An idiomatic word giving a suggestion of indefiniteness or interrogation -- even contemptuous interrogation -- to the sentence in which it occurs " /ber-apa/ how much/how many? " /apa-apa/ any; aught; any whateer KB /apa/ what? " /apa-i/ which? MENT /apa/ what?; which?; why?; how? OJ /apa/ what? (interrogative pronoun); also simply to introduce a question JAV /apa/ what?; what (kind of) thing?; to do what?; what, that which; whatever, anything; something, anything, everything; exclamation pointing out something, or holding something up to derision " /apa-apa/ something; anything; everything BAL /apa/ what?; /apa/ is used as an `empty' word at the beginning or end of a sentence to indicate that the sentence is a question SAS /apa/ what? Used as an answer from one of higher to one of lower status, as from father to son: `yes' SAN /apa/ (interrogative pronoun) what?; (indefinite pronoun) something; also in a contemptuous sense: someone " /se9-apa/ how much? TNTB /apa/ what, which TNTB /sa9a-apa/ one thing, in contrast to another BAR /apa/ a word (sometimes in the /a/), that is used more or less enclitically to make the meaning of a free morpheme more general, often translated with `or so', `or something similar', etc. " /apa te?i/ what is this? (fixed expression in a game) TAE' /apa/ what? what sort of? " /apa-9ku/ mine, what is mine " /k-(um)-a-apa/ or (marker of disjunction) " /sa9-apa/ how long? MDR /apa/ what? " /sa9-apa/ how much? PSS */apa/ what MAK /apa/ what; something, of unique significance WOL /apa/ what? " /tua apa/ how? CMP: KOM /apa/ what; so-and-so, something; wherefore MGG /apa/ something, anything; genitals; whatever (used jocularly, or when uncertain); never mind, it's alright; what? RMB /apa/ what? NGA /apa/ what?; which?; what kind of?; wherefrom/from what? SIKA /apa/ what? (indefinite pronoun) " /apa-ha/ how much/many? WAT /afa/ what? KOI /lafa/ what? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-apa/ why? WMP: MAL /me9-apa/ why; reason why OJ /a9-apa/ in what way? how? JAV /9-apa/ to (be) doing what? why? MDR /ma9-apa-i/ why? what is the reason? MAK /a99-apa-i/ why? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-apa-i/ do something to someone WMP: BI /me9-apa(apa)-i/ do something to MAK /a99-apa`-i/ do something to someone ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */apa-i/ ? WMP: DPB /apa-i/ interrogative of person: who? " /apa-i-na/ which? which part? TAE' /ma? apa-i/ what is wrong with him/her? CMP: PAU /afa-i/ what? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */apa apa/ something; anything; everything WMP: MAL /apa apa/ any; aught; any whatever BI /apa apa/ anything; what(so)ever JAV /apa apa/ something; anything; everything BAL /apa apa/ whatever?; also indefinite pronoun: anything SAS /apa apa/ something TAE' /apa apa/ whatever; anything; everything MAK /apa apa/ thing(s) CMP: RMB /apa apa/ something (Wangka dialect) NGA /apa apa/ something; anything; everything; any one OC: [MOTA /sava sava/ everything, all sorts of things] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) *NEG + /apa apa/ nothing WMP: BI /tidak apa apa/ it's nothing, never mind TAE' /tae' apa apa/ nothing; never mind; whatever NOTE: Also CHM_/hafa/ `what, question word; also used in common greetings', KED_/Ape/ `what?', BULI_/ahai/ `what?'. Reflexes of PMP_*/apa/ have a rather puzzling distribution. Throughout Taiwan, the Philippines and much of Borneo reflexes of */a-nu/ or */i-nu/ mean `what?'. The northernmost reflexes of */apa/ are found in Lun Dayeh and Kelabit of northern Sarawak, where the unaffixed stem //apeh// means `which', and affixed forms may be used for other question words (LD //i-apeh//, KEL //9-apeh// `where?'). Only on reaching the Malayic group of languages in southern Borneo do we begin to find languages in which an unaffixed reflex of */apa/ means `what?'. The same type of reflex is widespread throughout the remaining portions of Indonesia, although reflexes of the doublet */sapa/ are occasionally found in western Indoneseia, are somewhat more common in eastern Indonesia and entirely replaced */apa/ in Proto-Oceanic. #beetle, #insect (3) */ampal/ beetle sp. WMP: WBM /ampal/ large cockroach OJ /ampal/ a particular kind of beetle JAV /ampal/ beetle #armpit, #crotch (3) */apaqpaq/ armpit, crotch WMP: PAL /ucha'uch/ crotch CHM /afa?fa?/ armpit, crotch SAN /papa-/ (in composition) armpit, esp. of animals (pigs, etc.); side under the armpit NOTE: CHM_/afa?fa?/ (rather than **/guafa?fa?/) suggests */qa-/, but the Chamorro treatment of initial vowels may have differed in disyllables and trisyllables. PAL_/ucha'uch/ shows metathesis of anticipated **/ua'chuch/, a change which can be seen in the reflexes of some other reduplicated monosyllables, as with */panpan/ `plank' > /ula'ol/ `floor' and */bujbuj/ `pour, sprinkle' > /odi-bso'bs/ `pour out (large quantity of liquid)'. #empty, #husk (2) */ampaw/ empty husk (of rice, etc.) WMP: ILK /ampa'w/ empty shell, nut, etc. TAG /ampa'w/ puffed rice or corn BKL /ampa'w/ puffed rice AKL /a'mpaw/ popped rice candy CEB /ampa'w/ delicacy consisting of puffed rice coated with caramel and stuck into bricks MAR /ampao/ popped rice CMP: BURU /apa-n/ empty (grain) hull #hindrance, #obstacle (3) */aped/ hindrance, obstacle dbl. */habed/ WMP: ILK /appe'd/ obstructed, hindered, impeded, blocked MLG /a'fitra/ stopped, hindered, or impeded #taste of unripe banana, #bitter taste, #astringent taste (2) */apeled/ taste of unripe banana; slightly bitter or astrigent taste dsj. */pelet/ dbl. */sapeled/ WMP: KAN /appe'd/ rough, harsh (to the taste) AKL /a'peod/ having the flavor of raw or unripe bananas CEB /aplu'd/ having an insipid to slightly bitter taste with an astrigent effect, such as unripe bananas MAR /peled/ sourness of taste CMP: BIMA /firi/ harsh-tasting, acid, tart #finch, #rice #bird (3) */ampeRij/ type of finch, rice bird dbl. */apiRit/ WMP: MAL /emperit/ finch TB /amporik/ rice bird NOTE: Also KB_/perik/ `rice bird', /perik perik/ `birds in general', JAV_/emprit/ `a certain small hummingbird, considered an omen of danger', BAL_/perit/ `species of rice bird', SAS_/perit/ `rice bird'. This comparison is unlikely to be a product of chance, yet it can be maintained only precariously. The relationship of the Malay and Toba Batak forms is straightforward, and given the correspondence of the final consonants is not easily explained through a hypothesis of borrowing. However, the Karo Batak form, an almost certain cognate of TB_/amporik/, has final //k// rather than the expected final //9//. Both it and the DPB_/perik/ `rice bird' may be early loans from Toba Batak, just as the Javanese, Balinese and Sasak forms appear to be loans from Malay. The validity of */ampeRij/ is made more likely by the need to reconstruct a doublet, */apiRit/, a form which also serves to disambiguate the intervocalic consonant as */R/. #stanch (3) */ampet/ stanch the flow, as of blood WMP: KAP /ampat/ stanch the flow of blood; stop, detain, check the progress of (Berga{n~}o) BKL /ampa't/ (< A) stop, put a stop to, quell, suppress MLG /mi-a`fitra/ to stay, to halt, to be arrested in one's progress JAV /ampet/ to check, restrain BAL /ampet/ stanch, stop the flow NOTE: Also TAG_/ampa't/ `checked, stopped, as of bleeding' (presumpably a Kapampangan loan). With root */-pet/ `plugged, stopped, closed off'. #hold, #grasp (8) */ampi/ take hold of, grasp dsj. */qampi/ OC: GED /abi/ take hold of, grab, seize, grasp, clutch, take NUM /-ambi/ hold, get, take BWAI /abi/ take hold of something, grasp something LAK /abi/ take, catch, get #rain (3) */ampias/ wind-driven rain WMP: TAG /ampi'as/ rain entering through open or cracked windows, doors, walls, etc. IBAN /empias/ drops of driven rain (e.g. drops of rain blown onto a table by a window, drops of rain driven into a room) MAL /t-empias/ deflected (and so beating in), as rain; commonly of slanting rain MAL(Jak) /t-ampias/ raindrops that spatter or splash in NOTE: Also AKL_/ambi/ `get inside a window, seep in (rain)', IBAN_/bias/ `rain storm with high wind, driving rain', MAL_/bias/ `deflected (of a course). Of rain falling at an angle (/hujan bias/) because of wind; of a ship's course being affected by tides or currents; but not of a ship being blown off its course altogether by storms', MAL(Jak)_/lampias/ `veer off one's course at sea'. #braid, #join (3) */apid/ braid WMP: BON /api'd/ braid IFG /api'd/ to braid, entwine, interlace; applicable to anything that can be or that is braided, such as ropes, strings, threads, mats, women's hair UJ /apir/ either of the halves of two things joined (as of two bananas that are fused together) NOTE: With root */-pid/ `wound together, braid'. Apparently distinct from */Sapij/ `twins'. #stack (3) */apid/ lie in stacks, one on top of the other WMP: CEB /a'pid/ arrange things of approximately the same size in a neat stack MSK /ampid/ to stack (as wood) DIB /apid/ layer, thickness (as of clothing, mat); to double, add a second layer WBM /apid/ of flat objects with considerable surface, or of layers of clothing, to be one on top of the other MAR /apid/ ancestor, descendant; underclothes " /apid-apid/ successive generations; something arranged by layers GOR /wapidu/ layers TAE' /ma9-api?/ lie in layers, one on top of the other #twins (2) */apij/ twins dsj. */Sabij/ (3) */apij/ twins; double banana dsj. */Sabij/ WMP: BTK /a'pid/ twin KAD /t-apid/ twins; concubine of a married man " /ma9-apid/ marry two wives KEL /apid/ partner, match, mate, complement KAY /apin/ twin offspring UJ /apir/ either of the halves of two things joined " /p-apir/ fused, as two bananas that have grown together; twins BID /apid/ additional, extra SGH /anak ber-opid/ twins BM /apid/ twin, of fruit (e.g. two bananas grown together) OC: ROV /avisi/ twins, when of same sex NOTE: Also AMIS_/?api/ `twin; double (as a banana)', HAN_/ka'pid/ `twin(s)', HLG_/ka'pid/ `twin, double', KB_/galuh rapit/ `double banana', JAV_/Dampit/ `boy-girl twins', BAR_/mo-rapi/ `twin'. Although PMP_*/apij/ can only be glossed `twins', it appears that PWMP_*/apij/ referred both to twins and to double fruits, particularly fused bananas. The recurrent references to double bananas in such WMP languages as Uma Juman Kayan and Bolaang Mongondow, and the parallel association of twinning with humans and fruits in the similar but non-corresponding Amis and Karo Batak forms, raise the possibility that */apij/ `twins' and */qapid/ `braid, twine' are actually the same morpheme (since both the strands of a braided rope, and double bananas are joined along the length). However, */qapid/ appears definitely to end in */d/, and if ROV_/avisi/ truly belongs in this cognate set (and not with */Sabij/), */apij/ must end in */j/. #pat, #clap (3) */ampik/ pat, clap WMP: KAN /ampi'k/ pat, tap lightly BJR /ampik/ clap NOTE: Possibly a convergent innovation. With root */-pik/ `pat, light slap'. #roll (3) */ampin/ roll of leaves or cloth WMP: TB /ma9-ampin/ in weaving, to roll up a woven cloth because it would otherwise be too long for the arms " /sa-ampin/ a piece of cloth as large as a woman can weave at one time BAL /ampin/ bunch (of leaves), bundle, pile, heap SAS /ampin/ roll of sirih leaves TNTB /ampin/ leaf, cloth, etc. with which one seizes something #finch, #rice #bird (3) */apiRit/ type of finch, rice bird dbl. */ampeRij/ WMP: KEL /pirit/ small bird with long beak, rice bird NgD /ampit/ small bird which does great damage in the ricefields; there are two kinds: black with white beak, and red with ash-gray neck and green beak MAL(Jak) /pirit/ finch SND /piit/ small finch-like bird NOTE: It is assumed that NgD_/ampit/ reflects earlier */ampihit/, with syllable loss motivated by the general disyllabic canonical target of non-Oceanic Austronesian languages. #rattan (3) */apis/ kind of rattan WMP: TAG /api's/ kind of rattan IBAN /apis/ rattan bag or basket #grandparent, #grandchild (1) */apu/ grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal) dbl. */empu/, */impu/, */umpu/ F: THAO /apu/ grandparent (2) */ampu/ grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal) dbl. */empu/, */impu/, */umpu/ WMP: ITB /apo/ kinship term for vocative only: grandparent, great grandpartent, grandchild, great grandchild, etc. ISG /a_po'/ grandparent; master, mistress; sir, madam; chief, lord; grandchild ITW /afu'/ God GAD /afo/ reciprocal relationship between grandparent and grandchild DGT /apo'/ grandparent, grandchild BON /apo'/ the relationship between relatives at the second (or greater) ascending or descending generation; grandparent, grandchild; an old person, a grandparent; a leader, a person in charge, usually applied only in situations which are not traditional Bontoc institutions " /a'po/ term of address for all of one's relatives at the second (or greater) ascending or descending generation; grandparent, great grandparent; grandchild, great grandchild KAN /apo'/ grandfather, grandmother, grandchild IFG /apu'/ grandfather, grandmother, granduncle, grandaunt; also used in the sense of `master', `leader having the authority of prestige', `teacher', `superior', etc. ILK /apo'/ grandparent; master, mistress; sir, madam; grandchild PGS /a'po/ term of respect used especially when addressing a priest " /apo'/ grandchild, great-nephew, great-niece KAP /a'pu/ grandparent, esp. grandmother. As a term of address, /a'pu/ is used for grandfather and grandmother; as a term of reference, usually it is restricted to grandmother, with /i9ko9/ being used for grandfather; also used with saints' names: Apu Lusya `Saint Lucy' " /apu'/ grandchild TAG /apo'/ grandchild HAN /a'pu/ owner, master, often used figuratively AKL /apo'(h)/ grandchild CEB /apu'/ grandchild MALOH /ampu/ grandchild TAE' /ampo/ grandchild MAK /ampu/ grandchild (Salayar dialect); owner of something OC: NMB /abu/ grandparent SEA /avu/ grandparents and their siblings ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */in-ampu/ (?) WMP: BON /i-in-apo'/ daughter-in-law; son-in-law KAN /in-apo'/ son-in-law; daughter-in-law AKL /in-a'po/ grandchildren TNTB /n-apo-?/ deceased grandfather ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ka-ampu-an/ descendants WMP: KAN /ka-apo-a'n/ great grandfather; great grandsire; great grandmother AKL /ka-apo'-apo'-han/ future generation(s) (of grandchildren) MbS /ke-epo-an/ descendants ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ma9a-ampu/ ancestors WMP: ITB /ma9a-apo/ vocative term: grandchild, spouse of grandchild, great grandchild TNTB /ma9a-apo-?/ the ancestors ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */pa-ampu/ grandparent (vocative?) WMP: ITB /pa-apo/ vocative term: fond name for grandparent, grandaunt/uncle, or any person two generations older TNTB /p-apo-?/ vocative of /apo-?/ OC: NALI /pa-apu/ grandfather BIPI /pa-apu/ grandfather ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */pa9-ampu/ descendants (?) WMP: BON /pa9-apo'/ the social unit comprising all of the descendants of a single ancestor CEB /pa9-apu'/ have grandchildren ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (6) */t-ampu/ grandparent/grandchild (reciprocal) SHWNG: WINDESI /t-apu/ grandparent; grandchild RAL /t-abu-/ grandparent; grandchild; reciprocal term used between a woman and her parents-in-law ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ampu-en/ regard as a grandparent or grandchild (?) WMP: ITB /apo-en/ reference term: person regarded as grandparent, grandparent substitute; master, boss IFG /apu'w-on/ adopt a child as one's grandchild BKL /apo'-?-on/ grandparents; ancestors, forefathers ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */apu-?/ grandparent, ancestor, lord, master, owner (voc.) WMP: TAG /a'po-?/ patriarch; mogul BKL /a'po-?/ grandparent; sire; respectful title for old men or women; imp; a small human-like creature living in little earth mounds and possessing magical powers capable of turning people into animals such as toads, snakes BTK /apo'-?/ father's father; mother's father; male grandparents and their male siblings; son's son, daughter's son WBM /apu-?/ grandparent; grandchild MAR /apo-?/ ancestor; grandchild DIB /apu-?/ grandparent; grandchild MbS /apo-?/ grandparent; grandchild PM */apo-?/ grandparent; ancestor; lord (title) TNTB /apo-?/ grandparent; Sir, as a title given to gods and men: lord, ruler ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ampu ampu/ forefathers, ancestors WMP: ISG /a_p-apo'/ Lord KAN /ap-apo'/ forefathers, ancestors MAR /apo?-apo?/ ancestors; patriarch NOTE: Also MLG_/a'fy/ `grandchild', SIM_/ambo/, /ambu/ `grandparents; ancestors', YMD_/ambo/ `reciprocal address term used between grandparents and grandchildren'. Reflexes of */t-ampu/ and */ampu-?/ almost certainly had a wider distribution than is indicated here (cf. Blust 1979). Finally, Philippine languages invariably reflect a form with non-prenasalized medial consonant, whereas almost all diagnostic witnesses outside the Philippines indicate */-mb-/ in this form and in the doublets */empu/, */impu/ and */umpu/. #dust (3) */apuk/ dust dbl. */qabuk/ WMP: IFG /a'puk/ drizzling rain TBW(K) /apuk/ dust BTK /apo'k/ dust, soot MSK /apok/ mold; moldy, mildewed KEL /apuk/ fine ashes or dust in the air; sawdust, facial powder SENTAH /apuk/ ash IBAN /apok/ fog, mist; dust, dirt " /apok empelawa?/ (old) cobwebs NOTE: Although the evidence for a semantic distinction is rather thin, PWMP_*/qabuk/ `dust' and */apuk/ `dust' apparently had somewhat different referents. Whereas the former probably referred to dust produced by the trituration of dry substances (sago dust, sawdust, etc.), the latter seems to have referred to dirty particles, as in soot, mildew, or old cobwebs. With root */-puk/ `dust'. #scatter, #disperse (3) */ampuk/ scatter, disperse WMP: BON /apo'k/ scatter, as a crowd of people or broken beads KAN /apo'k/ spread; scatter; dissipate; expand BAL /ampuk/ widely scattered, dispersed NOTE: Also ITB_/hapak/ `act of scattering'. Possibly a chance resemblance. #pardon, #forgiveness (3) */ampun/ pardon, forgiveness WMP: KAD /ampun/ pardon, forgive, condone, remit, excuse, absolve NgD /ampun/ pardon, forgiveness BJR /ampun/ pardon IBAN /ampun/ forgiveness, pardon, submission; apologize, confess MAL /ampun/ pardon (of a royal or divine superior showing mercy; forgiveness between equals is /maaf/, /mahap/, /tabek/) ACH /ampo_n/ pardon, forgiveness; apology; remission, absolution TB /ampun/ pardon, forgiveness REJ /apun/ pardon, mercy " /apun tuan/ initial salutation to ancestral spirits in propitiation rites SND /ampun/ pardon, forgiveness OJ /ampun/ show mercy toward, receive with favor BAL /ampun/ pardon, forgive SAS /ampun/ pardon, forgiveness SAN /ampu9/ forgiveness, pardon DAMPELAS /ampun/ pardon, forgiveness BGG /ampun/ forgiveness, pardon BAR /a'mpu9-i/ forgiveness, pardon CMP: MGG /ampu9/ pardon, forgiveness ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-ampun/ pardon, forgive WMP: KAD /ma9-ampun/ pardon, forgive, condone, remit, excuse, absolve TB /ma9-ampun/ ask for forgiveness, apologize SAN /ma9-ampu9/ pardon, forgive [BM /mo9-ampu9/ ask for forgiveness, entreat, implore] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-ampun-i/ pardon, forgive WMP: BI /me9-ampun-i/ pardon, forgive OJ /a9-ampun-i/ show mercy toward, receive with favor DAMPELAS /me9-ampun-i/ pardon, forgive BGG /mo9-ompun-i/ to pardon ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */pa9-ampun-an/ ? WMP: BI /pe9-ampun-an/ forgiveness, absolution TB /pa9-ampun-an/ apology SAN /pa9-ampu9-a9/ one who will be granted forgiveness; one who asks for forgiveness ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ampun-an/ pardon, forgiveness WMP: MAL /ampun-an/ pardon, apology SAS /ampun-an/ pardon, forgiveness [TNTB /ampu9-an/ be forgiven] NOTE: Also TNTB_/ampu9/ `pardon, forgiveness', BM_/ampu9/ `pardon, forgiveness'; GOR_/a:mbu9u/ `pardon', WOL_/ampon-i/ `forgive; pardon, forgiveness', MGG_/ampo9/ `pardon, forgiveness', RMB_/ampo9/ `pardon, forgiveness', RMB_/apon/ `pardon, forgiveness (Wangka dialect)', ROTI_/apon/ `pardon, forgiveness'. Two problems with this comparison are noteworthy. First, many reflexes in Sulawesi show an irregular final velar nasal for expected //n//. For BAR_/ampu9-i/ I assume a regular development */-n-/ > -//9//, with later loss of consonants in absolute final position. The irregular forms in Tontemboan and the Gorontalo-Mongondow languages may be due to borrowing from a Sangiric language, but this is speculative. Second, the semantic distinction between */ma9-ampun/ and */ma9-ampun-i/ remains unclear. The former may have meant `ask for forgiveness' and the latter `give forgiveness, forgive'. However, on a priori grounds one would expect that the meaning `ask for forgiveness' would have been marked morphologically with the PWMP petitive prefix */maki-/, reflected e.g. in SAN_/maki-ampu9/ and TNTB_/meki-ampu9/ `ask for forgiveness'. Finally, many of the forms cited here appear to be loans from Malay, and the same would seem to be true of TAG_/ampo'n/ `protection in the form of adoption', /ampu'n-an/ `asylum; orphan asylum'. However, since it is often unclear in particular cases which forms are native and which are borrowed, it remains uncertain whether the elimination of Malay loanwords would force us to abandon the reconstruction of */ampun/ on the PWMP level. #tree fern (2) */apuni/ tree fern dsj. */puni/ WMP: MAR /puni/ tree fern: %Marattia% sp. BAR /ampu'ni/ tree fern. The pith is fed to pigs, the wood is burned as a mosquito repellant, the roots (a pretty black) are chopped into bits and used 1. as beads, and 2. as a magical charm NAPU /apuni/ tree fern %Alsophila% sp. CMP: MGG /puni/ tree fern, %Cyathea% sp. (Verheijen 1967); the young leaves of %Cyathea% are eaten, and this may have been important when collecting food in the forests (Verheijen 1984) RMB /puni/ tree fern, %Cyathea% sp. NOTE: Also SAN_/puni9/ `tree fern, giant fern', TONDANO_/lampuni/ `tree fern: %Alsophila% sp.', NGA_/poni/ `tree with very flimsy wood'. #float (2) */apu9/ float WMP: KAD /ampu9/ float, swim MLG /a'fona/ rest on the water, float, swim MAL /apo9/ floating on water; driftwood " /apo9-an/ floats for nets; fisherman's marks ACH /ampo_9/ float of a fishing net, buoy " /apo_9/ floating on the water, light in weight SND /apu9-apu9-an/ bob up and down, pitch and toss, as on the waves " /manuk apu9/ skylark SAS /9-ampu9/ suspended from something CMP: KMB /apu9u/ float, bob on the surface ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */apu9 apu9/ floating WMP: KB /ampu9-ampu9/ float of a fishline or fish net SAS /ampu9 ampu9/ kind of floating acquatic plant OC: K-K /avu9-avu9/ fish net floats NOTE: Also DGT_/abu'9/ `float along with the current (of wind or river). With root */-pu9/ `to float'. #betel, #chew (1) */apuR/ betel chew F: PUY(T) /apuR/ chew betel nut with lime PAI /apu/ betelnut quid WMP: SML /apug/ betel chew (literary) NOTE: Apparently distinct from */qapuR/ `lime (part of the betel chew)'. #break out in #boils (3a) */apu'y/ break out in boils WMP: BON /apo'y/ make someone break out in boils for having transgressed on one's property or having stolen something belonging to one CEB /apu'y/ boil which goes deep into the flesh and develops slowly, esp. around the knees NOTE: Also MENT_/a_pu/ `boil, abscess'. #negative, #no, #not (3) */aqa/ negative marker: no, not WMP: BON /a?a/ expression of warning to small children, as for example against touching something hot or dirty KAD /a?a/ no BIN /a~/ no, not NOTE: Also KEN_/a?a/ `affirmative, yes'. BIN_/a~/ is assumed to exhibit a unique contraction, with nasality introduced by the earlier glottal closure. #plant (3) */aqedas/ plant with sharp leaves WMP: ISG /ada_s/ %Scleria% sp. A sedge whose leaves have very sharp edges. Attached to the ladder of the house where a sacrifice is offered, it keeps out evil spirits. It is also added to the feathers of the /du'law/ ornament BI /adas/ kind of hemp, %Cannabis sativa%; a substance such as marijuana, hashish, etc., made from the leaves and flowers of this plant TAE' /a?da?/ kind of plant with serrated stem that can cause wounds; the leaves are also very sharp NOTE: ISG_/ada_s/ is assumed to be a metathesis of earlier **/a_das/. #harvest (3) */aRani/ harvest; to harvest dbl. */qaniS/ WMP: MAR /agani/ harvest rice WBM /eg_ani/ harvest KEL /ranih/ harvest " /pe-ranih/ the small bamboo or iron knife used to remove the rice head in harvesting; the harvest #eel (2) */aRema9/ kind of marine eel WMP: ILK /ar(a)ma'9/ kind of small, edible, marine shrimp DGT /a'gma9/ type of ocean fish (Headland_&_Headland_1974), kind of marine eel (Reid_1971:186) CEB /agma'9/ kind of eel SAS /ama9/ marine eel SAN /hemma9/ marine eel CMP: BURU /hema/ marine eel #fern (2) */aResam/ kind of fern WMP: IBAN /resam/ a fern: %Gleichenia% sp. MAL /resam/ forest fern: %Gleichenia linearis%, of which some parts are like whalebone and make Malay pens MIN /ra(n)sam/ forest fern: %Gleichenia linearis%, of which some parts are like whalebone and make Malay pens DPB /arsam/ kind of upright fern TB /arsam/ kind of fern ACH /r+sam/ kind of fern PS */R6sam/ fern sp OC: FIJ /caca/ a fern: %Acrostichum aureum%, %Pteridaceae% NOTE: Also TIR_/ansam/ `edible fern: %Helminthostachys zeylanica (Linn.) Hook.%'. Sneddon_(1984) draws attention to the cognate forms in Proto-Sangiric and Malay, citing PPH (Charles_1973) */aRsam/ `fern'. #come, #let's go, #come on, #bring (1) */aRi/ come, let's go! F: PAI /ari/ let's go! WMP: KAN /y-ali/ bring BON /i-a'li/ bring KB /ari ko/ come here! BM /agi?/ come here!; toward the speaker ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */aRi aRi/ you go on ahead! F: PAI /ari ari/ you go on ahead! ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */um-aRi/ to come F: PAI /m-ari/ ask someone to accompany oneself WMP: KAN /um-a'li/ come, come along, arrive BON /om-a'li/ come KB /mari ko/ come here! BM /magi?/ toward the speaker (/-?/ presumably a vocative suffix generalized both to /agi?/ and /magi?/; cf. Blust_1980) NOTE: Undoubtedly the root in Dempwolff's_(1938) */maRi/ (< */um-aRi/) `toward the speaker'. */R/ > /r/ is rare in Paiwan, and this form together with BKL_/ma'ri na/ `come here!', AKL_/mali'/ `come on! let's go!' suggests a root */ari/, in contrast to BM_/agi?/, /magi?/, which points to */um-aRi/ and FAV, YAMI, MGG_/mai/, TIR_/ay/ `come', which indicate */um-ai/. That the reduplicated form also occurred in the meaning indicated seems likely from BI_/mari/ `let's go!', /mari-mari/ `you go on ahead!'. #scrape, #shave (3) */aRud/ scrape, shave (as rattan) dbl. */kaRud/ scrape, grate, rasp WMP: BON /a'god/ to sharpen to a point, as a post, stick, or pencil ILK /a'gud/ scraping the edge of a board of a strip of bamboo, etc. with the edge of a tool TIR /arud/ to shave flat a length of split rattan, in preparing it for use as lashing TAE' /arru?/ scrape, scrape off " /ue arru?/ rattan that has already been scraped {?? recte /ue" arru?/ -- check form} NOTE: With root */-rud/ `scratch, scrape'. {?? or */-Rud/} #tree, #%Casuarina equisetifolia% (2) */aRuhu/ a shore tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia% dsj. */qaRuhu/ WMP: DGT /agu'/ type of tree, %Casuarina equisetifolia% (found growing along the sea shores in the Casiguran area; it looks like a type of pine, but is not ILK /aroo'/ filao, beefwood, %Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.% A leafless, dioecious tree with oblong cones; roots and bark are used for medicinal purposes: their infusion, when drunk at regular intervals, is supposed to cure bad humors, especially in women suffering from diseases of the womb BKL /agu'ho/ tree possessing pine-like needles: %Casuarina equisetifolia% TAG /agu'ho/ a tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia% HAN /agu'?u/ a tree (%Casuarina equisetifolia Linn.%), pinelike in appearance MAL /(e)ru/ a tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia TB /aru/ large tree which provides a fine shade PAL /9as/ ironwood CHM /gagu/ ironwood tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia% CMP: NUM /ya_r/ a tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia WIND /yaru/ a tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia (8) */aRu/ a shore tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia% OC: GITUA /yaru/ a tree: %Casuarina% sp. BUG /aru/ a tree: %Casuarina% LAU /salu/ sp. of tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia% " /salu-tolo/ sp. of tree: %Casuarina nodiflora% KWAIO /lalu/ the ironwood tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia% SA'A /sa"lu/ the ironwood tree, %Casuarina equisetifolia%; the needles are crushed and placed over bodies exposed for burial; a red stain is made from the scraped bark of the trees and used as a preservative for fishing-lines AA /raru/ ironwood, a littoral tree ARS /saru/ sp. of tree, %Casuarina%, fruitless, unlike /tarumare/ (sp. of %Casuarina% planted in villages, and more or less sacred; a wreath of %Casuarina% needles thrown into a grave either by each mourner, or by one of each clan') MOTA /aru/ the casuarina tree, which has a sacred character; hence /tano aruaru/ `a sacred place with /aru/ trees' FIJ /cau/ kind of ironwood tree: %Casuarina nodiflora% NOTE: Also AKL_/aguho'?/ `native pine-like tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia%', CEB_/agu'hu?/ `Australian pine: %Casuarina equisetifolia%'. Lumber and ornamental tree. The roots and bark have medicinal uses. Young specimens are used as Christmas trees', KEL_/aru?/ `a tree: %Casuarina% spp.', IBAN_/ru?/ `trees: %Casuarina% spp.', KB_/eru/ `a tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia%', NGG_/aru/ `sp. of tree: %Casuarina%, KWAIO_/salu/ `a tree: %Casuarina equisetifolia%'. Zorc (1982:127) reconstructs PMP_*/qaRu:hu?/ `%Casuarina%', but his treatment oversimplifies the complexity of this comparison. First, all languages except MIN, PAL and CHM are ambiguous for the contrast of */q-/ and zero. Palauan and Chamorro unambiguously reflect a form with initial vowel, whereas Minangkabau unambiguously reflects a form with initial */q/. The evidence for the onset is thus contradictory. Similarly, AKL, CEB and IBAN unambiguously support */-?/, whereas TAG_/agu'ho/, BKL_/agu'ho/ contrarily support */-u/ (Zorc 1982:115). In an effort to accomodate some of these mutually incompatible correspondences I have reconstructed disjuncts */aRuhu/, */qaRuhu/, and assigned the Aklanon and Cebuano forms with -/?/ to this note rather than posit at least two more highly questionable disjuncts */aRuhu?/ and */qaRuhu?/. The magico-religious associations of the %Casuarina% in Melanesia which are suggested by ARS_/saru/ and MOTA_/aru/ are further strengthened by e.g. RAL_/ia_ra/ `sp. of tree, %Casuarina equisetifolia%, the Australian pine or `she-oak', the leaves of which are used as a magic charm and are believed to be especially potent in warding off evil spirits'. #one, #numeral (1) */asa/ one dbl. */esa/, */isa/\2 F: SAI /?{ae}h{ae}?/ one WMP: ITB /a?sa/ one CMP: BATUMERAH /w-asa/ one SHWNG: BULI /asa/ one NOTE: ITB /-?-/ in {ITB}_/a?sa/ `one', {ITB}_/a?pat/ (< */xepat/) `four', and {ITB}_/a?nam/ (< */enem/) `six' suggests that /a?sa/ may derive from a reduplicated form of */esa/ in which the reduplicating vowel was stereotypically */a/ (cf. Blust_1974d, Yamada_1991). It is possible that a similar history underlies all forms that provide prima facie support for */asa/. #incite, #urge on, #stir up (3) */asag/ incite, urge on, stir up WMP: KAP /asag/ incite IBAN /ansak/ urge, incite, move towards; egg on SAN /asage?/ urge someone on to, incite NOTE: Also BAL_/atag/ `spur on, incite, encourage', MDR_/assal/ `incite, egg on'. LAU_/sata/ `urge strongly' shows regular correspondences with the forms cited here, but probably is a chance resemblance, since no supporting evidence from any other Oceanic language is known. #mortise and #tenon #joint (3) */asa9/ mortise and tenon joint WMP: ILK /a'sa9/ the pin of a lock that fits in the socket of a key KAY /asa9/ mortise and tenon joint #dry out (2) */asat/ dry out, become dry WMP: AKL /a'tas/ (< M) evaporate JAV /asat / dried, become dry MAD /asat/ dried up (of stream or well) BAL /asat/ very thirsty, dried out CMP: ASI /asat/ drought NOTE: Also BON_/aset/ `squeeze dry, as a mill squeezes the juice from sugarcane', REJ_/aseut/ `shallow', REJ_/me9-aseut/ `ebb, recede'. Dempwolff's attempt to include such Oceanic forms as SA'A_/ma-ata/ `dried up, of a sore', and SAM_/masa/ `(of the tide) neap; (of a canoe, boat, etc.) be empty (after bailing out, etc.)' (the latter now assigned to */maja/) appears to have been misguided. #incense, #smoke (3) */asep/ incense, ritual smoke dsj. */qasep/ dbl. */qaseb/ WMP: ILK /ase'p/ incense, perfume " /asp-a'n/ to incense, to perfume NgD /asep/ smoke " /h-asep/ to smoke BJR /asap/ smoke IBAN /asap/ smoke, steam " /in-sap/ smoked (of meat or fish) MAL /asap/ visible vapor; steam; smoke " /asap-kan/ fumigate " /per-asap-an/ incense-burner JAR /asap/ smoke RHA /asap/ smoke REJ /asep/ smoke OJ /asep/ incense " /p-asep-an/ incense-burner MAD /asep/ smoke BAL /asep/ smoke, give off smoke; the smoke of sacrifice, incense; thick smoke " /asep men~an/ the smoke of incense NOTE: Also TAG_/asa'p/, /hasa'p/ `suffocation or eye irritation by smoke or vapors'; /asap-i'n/ `to fumigate (insects, animals, etc.)'; KEN_/sap/ `evaporation; smoke', NARUM_/sap/ `smoke', MIRI_/sap/ `smoke', TB_/ma9-asap/ `to smoke', /pa9-asap/ `formula uttered during ritual purification with smoke', /par-asap-an/ `incense-burner'. Both the Tagalog and Toba Batak forms probably are loans from Malay, although the initial consonant in the second Tagalog variant presents difficulties to this interpretation. Pateda (1977) gives Gorontalo /watopo/ `asap' (= `smoke'), but all of his supporting examples suggest that this is a typographical error for `atap' (= `thatch, roof'). Finally, whereas PMP_*/qasu/ apparently designated smoke or steam without cultural implication, */asep/ and its variants evidently referred to smoke in the context of ritual purification. #flesh (3) */asi/\1 flesh dbl. */Sesi/ WMP: IVT /asi/ flesh ACH /aso`e"/ contents, load, flesh (living or dead, but not slaughtered; also the flesh of fruits " /aso`e" na9gro`e"/ the peopling of the land NOTE: Also ITB_/a?si/ `fruit, meat of fruit, meat, flesh, rice ears, corn ears'. #show off (3) */asi/\2 show off WMP: BKL /a'si/ describing someone who is a show off SGH /asi-asi/ proud (vain) NOTE: Possibly identical to */asih/ `pretend'. Compare CEB_/a'si/ `expression needling a person for pretending', /a'si-a'si/ `presume to do something one cannot do'. #pretend (3) */asih/ pretend WMP: KAN /(a)si/ verbal prefix indicating simulation, or an action done by many CEB /a'si/ expression needling a person for pretending (as in pretending to sleep); chiding a person jokingly for something one notices for the first time; chiding a person for acting beyond his station " /asi'/ presume to do something one cannot do KEL /asih/ pretence " /9-asih/ ignore IBAN /asi?/ victim, dupe (?) REJ /asey/ feel, pretend, make believe, imagine ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */asih asih/ pretend WMP: CEB /asi-asi/ presume to do something one cannot do " /asih-asih-un/ presumptuous, taking for granted KEL /asih asih/ to pretend (as to pretend not to see another person), ignore someone NOTE: Also IBAN_/asi?/ `victim, dupe', DPB_/asa/ `stimulate a real action'. #sneeze (8) */asio/ sneeze OC: BWAI /asio/ sneeze WUV /atio/ sneeze NOTE: Also WUV_/atoi/ `sneeze'. Possibly a convergent innovation. #rice (fermented) (3) */asi?/ fermented rice (?) WMP: KAD /asiz-an/ the one for whom one makes rice beer BIS(L) /pe9-asi/ rice wine IBAN /asi?/ cooked rice JAR /asey/ cooked rice RHA /e^sei/ cooked rice ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ma9-asi?/ make rice wine (?) WMP: ITB /ma9-asi/ to separate aged wine from yeast KAD /ma9-asi/ to make rice beer ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */in-asi/ rice beer (?) KAD /n-asi/ native beer made from rice MNY /nahi?/ cooked rice MAL /nasi/ rice in two senses: (i) as cooked in some particular way; and (ii) as the staple food of the Malays KB /pajak nasi/ time to eat OJ /nasi/ cooked rice MAD /nase?/ cooked rice BAL /nasi/ steamed cooked rice SAS /nasi?/ cooked rice NOTE: Since the great majority of witnesses reflect */asi?/ in the meaning `cooked rice', it might be questioned why this meaning is not also associated with the ancestral form. However, reflexes of PAN_*/Semay/ `cooked rice' persisted in some of the languages cited here (or their close relatives). It is tempting to dismiss this cognate set as a product of borrowing from Malay, but under such a hypothesis at least three observations remain unexplained: 1) the absence of the initial nasal in Kadazan, Limbang Bisaya, Iban, and the Chamic languages, 2) the presence of the final glottal stop in Iban and Sasak, and 3) the meanings of the reflexes in Kadazan and Limbang Bisaya. It is possible that this form began as an innovation in northern Borneo which spread to Malay while the latter still occupied the Malayic homeland of southwest Borneo. If so it evidently underwent a semantic change in the process of borrowing, and was then borrowed from Brunei Malay into Kapampangan (cf. KAP_/nasi?/ `cooked (boiled) rice'). #bail out water (8) */asu/\1 bail out water dsj. */asu/\3 OC: WUV /atu/ bailer " /atum-ia/ bail out water TON /ohu/ dip up, ladle; to bale (a boat, or the water in it); catch little fish by dipping them up in large numbers #dog (1) */asu/\2 dog F: SAI /h/ dog THAO /atu/ dog BUN /asu/ dog PR */a!o/ dog SIR /assou/ dog WMP: ISG /a'to/ dog ITW /a'tu/ dog ILT /atu/ dog DGT /aso'/ dog; use dogs to track down a wounded pig or deer BON /a'so/ dog KAN /a'so/ dog, bitch IFG /a'hu/ dog, hound ILK /a'so/ dog, bitch PGS /aso'/ dog KAP /a'su/ dog TAG /a'so/ dog WBM /asu/ dog MAR /aso/ dog TBL /ohu/ dog YAKAN /asu/ dog KAD /t-asu/ dog LBIS /asu/ dog LgA /asu/ dog LgT /acoh/ dog LgJ /acew/ dog KAY /aso?/ dog MIRI /au/ dog BIN /asew/ dog MUK /asew/ dog DUSUN DEYAH /asu/ dog KAPUAS /asu?/ dog MALOH /asu/ dog IBAN /asu/ hunt, hunting MAL /gigi asu/ canine tooth CHAM /a!ew/ dog JAR /asew/ dog ACH /ase'e"/ dog GAYO_ /asu/ dog TB /asu/ dog, a coarse word much used in insults SIM /asu/ dog NIAS /asu/ dog LPG /asu/ dog OJ /asu/ dog, hound " /a9-asu/ low, vile (``like a dog'') JAV /asu/ dog " /n-asu n-asu/ hunt with dogs BAL /asu/ dog SAN /asu/ dog " /asu-9 anu?/ hunting dog " /asu-n sasi/ seal PM */asu/ dog TNTB /asu/ dog; also used of domesticated animals in general BGG /asu/ dog BAR /asu/ dog " /mo-asu/ hunt with dogs TAE' /asu/ dog MDR /asu/ dog BGS /asu/ dog MAK /asu/ dog CMP: MGG /acu/ dog (often used to insult and mock people) SIKA /?ahu/ dog LAM /aho/ dog KMB /ahu/ dog " /ahu awa9u/ witch ( = heavenly dog) ROTI /asu/ dog (only in ritual language) ATONI /asu/ dog TET /asu/ dog " /nehan asu/ canine tooth KEMAK /asu/ dog MAMBAI /ausa/ dog KED />au/ dog ERAI /asu/ dog WETAN /ai/ dog KISAR /ahu/ dog LETI /asu/ dog SEL /as/, /asu-re/ dog YMD /asu/ dog " /babi-asu/ quadrupeds ELAT /asu/ dog HITU /asu/ dog PAU /asu/ dog ALUNE /asu/ dog BURU /asu/ dog SOB /asu/ dog SEKAR /yasi/ dog ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */ka-asu/ canine companion WMP: IFG /ka'hu/ dog TNTB /ka-asu/ canine companion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-asu/ hunt with dogs WMP: SBLBt /ma9-aho/ hunt for game with a dog TAG /ma9-a'so/ hunt for game MUK /me9-asew/ hunt using dogs IBAN /9-asu/ to hunt, go hunting SIM /ma9-asu/ hunt with dogs TNTB /ma9-asu/ hunt with dogs BGG /ma9-asu/ hunt with dogs TAE' /ma9-asu-i/ hunt with dogs BGS /ma9-asu/ follow one's heart's desire ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */pa9-asu/ (?) WMP: BKD /pa9-a'su/ hunt with dogs TNTB /pa9-asu-n/ game, what is hunted NOTE: Also PAZ_/wazu/, KAV_/wasu/, PAI_/vatu/, AMIS_/waco/, ISG_/a'so/, MNY_/antahu?/, IBAN_/asu?/, MUNA_/dahu/ `dog'. Based on the unexpected glide in PAZ_/wazu/ and apparently corroboratory features in other languages, Dyen (1962) reconstructed PAN_*/Wasu/ `dog'. However, the data on which he based the reconstruction of */W-/ in this and certain otehr forms were misinterpreted. The initial consonant in the four Formosan languages cited remains unexplained, but is not confirmed by any extra-Formosan witnesses. In addition, the following observations are noteworthy: (1) Many languages appear to contain a simple or reduplicated reflex of */asu/ in the name of some kind of plant, but no specific agreement has yet been found which would permit a reconstruction. Examples include ISG_/a9-a'to/ `common herb some five inches tall. Burn it and place its ashes on a dog in order to enable it to catch the wild boar it has traced', DGT_/aso'-aso'/ `rattan sp.', BON_/a'so/ `kind of vine growing in thickets, used for binding: %Cissampelos pareira L.%.', IBAN_/e9kaba9 asu?/ `a tree: %Shorea palembanica Miq.%.', KB_/asu-asu/ `kind of fine grass', TET_/asu tanen/ `dog's paw, variety of marine plant'. Some of these may be connected with */ikuR ikuR ni asu/ `a plant with flowers in the shape of a dog's tail, used to treat abscesses' (q.v.); (2) Reflexes of this reconstruction, so richly attested from Taiwan, the Philippines, western Indonesia, the Lesser Sundas and much of the southern and Central Moluccas, are to date unattested in any SHWNG or OC language. This distribution coincides both with a proposed major subgroup boundary, and to a large extent with the region within which hunting (particularly for wild boar) was traditionally an important means for the acquisition of protein-rich foods. As Rehg (1992) has pointed out, names for `dog' are notoriously variable in Oceanic languages, or even within small regions of the Pacific such as Micronesia. This variability is consonant with a hypothesis that in a Pacific environment the dog lost much of the economic value which it had had in insular Southeast Asia, became a competitor for food, and was itself eaten to extinction in many locations and then reacquired from areas where it had managed to survive. #fetch water, #scoop up water (2) */asu/\3 fetch water, scoop up water dsj. */qasu/\1 WMP: MENT /asu/ fetch water OJ /a9su/ draw or scoop water JAV /a9su/ act or way of drawing water from a well TND /asu/ bamboo to bail out water TNTB /ma-asu/ fetch water from a spring or river " /me9-asu-9-asu/ repeatedly fetch water " /ni-asu/ water that has been fetched CMP: KED /ahu/ fetch water BURU /asu-k/ to draw (as water), dip #pound rice (3a) */asu'd/ pound rice in tandem WMP: ISG /asu'd/ to be two in pounding rice in the same mortar " /um-asu'd/ join another person in pounding rice, as the second of two BON /aso'd/ a method of pounding rice, in which two persons, one on each side of the mortar, alternately strike their pestles into the mortar ILK /asu'd/ help one another (pounding rice, preparing timber, etc.) IFG /ahu'd/ pound rice with two or three pestles in one trough, each pounder acting by turns TAG /aso'd/ successive blows (usually in a smithy or in pugilistic encounters) " /pa9-aso'd/ heavy hammer BKL /aso'd/ help someone in pounding (rice, iron in a forge) CEB /a'sud/ for two or more people to pound cereal in mortar together and in synchronization " /a'sud-a'sud/ come one after another in rapid succession, like several people pounding rice on one pestle MSK /asu'd/ to pound rice (two or more persons) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */maR-asu'd/ pound rice in tandem WMP: ISG /max-asu'd/ to be two in pounding rice in the same mortar BKL /mag-aso'd/ help someone in pounding (rice, iron in a forge) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3a) */asud-a'n/ pound together, place of pounding together WMP: BON /asod-an/ pound TAG /a'sur-an/ anvil BKL /asod-a'n/ help someone in pounding NOTE: Also KAN_/ase'd/ `pound by turns; alternate pounding (rice, etc. in one mortar)'. #shaman, #transvestite, #sex (3) */asug/ shaman in ritual transvestite attire WMP: BKL /aso'g/ an effeminate priest who speaks and attires himself like a woman, wears trinkets, and executes funny movements and provocative contortions during rituals offered to Aswang (witches) -- Bikol mythology AKL /a'sog/ lesbian; any woman who acts outside of the female role; tomboy TM /in-asug/ ritual name for the /babalian/ (shaman) NOTE: Zorc_(1979:25) posits Proto-Central_Philippines_*/a'sug/ `sterile, asexual'. This comparison was brought to my attention by D.J. Prentice. #smoke, #soot (2) */asuk/ smoke, soot dbl. */qasu/ WMP: ISG /asu'?/ smoke, fume, vapor, steam ITW /atu'k/ smoke DGT /aso'k/ smoke; for smoke to drift up from a fire BON /aso'k/ smoke; be smoky, give off smoke IFG /ahu'k/ smoke ILK /aso'k/ smoke, fume, vapor, steam SBL(Bt) /aho'k/ smoke KAP /asu'k/ smoke CMP: RMB /asuk/ blackened by smoke NOTE: Also ROTI_/atuk/ `soot, black stain from lamp or candle'. #incite, #spur (2) */asu9/ incite, spur to action WMP: DPB /asu9/ incite, spur to action CMP: SIKA /asu9/ incite cocks to fight NOTE: Also SND_/asur/ `incite, instigate, arouse to passion; stoke a fire', RMB_/asu/ `incite, spur on', SIKA_/asu/ `incite cocks to fight'. #plant, #%Cassia% (3) */asunti9/ a plant: %Cassia% sp. WMP: CEB /asunti'9/ kind of erect branching shrub, wild but occasionally planted as ornamental. The leaves are used in treating skin fungi: %Cassia alata% OJ /sunti9/ a particular kind of flower: %Cassia occidentalia% #displeasure, #surprise (3a) */ata/\1 expression, as of displeasure or surprise WMP: BON /ata'/ expression of displeasure or dislike of another person AKL /ata'(h)/ Oh, my goodness (expression of surprise) NOTE: Also BKL_/a'ta?/ `I've already told you', KAY_/atah/ `advice, warning'. #our (possessive #pronoun) (1) */ata/\2 1pl. incl. possessive pronoun: our F: BUN /ata/ we (inclusive); our, let's go AMIS /ata/ let's go! WMP: TAG /a'ta/ prepositive pronoun: our, ours; yours and mine (addressed to a familiar) " /ata-9 ba'hay/, /ba'hay n-ata/ our (incl.) house BID /ata/ we CMP: ROTI /ata/ non-emphatic form of the 1pl. incl. personal pronoun OC: GED /-ad/ suffix added to some finite verb stems to indicate that the undergoer of the action is the first person plural inclusive " /i-fun-ad/ he hit us TAWALA /ata/ our (inclusive) NGG /anda/ pronoun: us, used after compound verbs such as /lavimbule/ SAM /ata/ first person singular inclusive nominal pronoun with plural reference " /?o ata tama/ my (dear) children (woman speaking) " /si ata tama/ my (dear) child (woman speaking) REN /ata-a/ possessive (/a/-class, plural possessed objects). Ours, of ours (dual, inclusive) NOTE: Also AMIS_/tata/ `let's go!'. The syntactic function of */ata/, as opposed to */ita/kita/ or */aten/ remains unclear. #flood #tide (3a) */ata'b/ flood tide WMP: ILK /ata'b/ flood tide, flux, flow " /um-ata'b/ to rise, to flow KAP /ata'b/ tide AKL /a'tab/ overflow slightly, flood over a little bit #stay with, #accompany (3a) */anta'bay/ stay with, accompany WMP: ILK /anta'bay/ side; unison (of voices, strings, etc.); stand side by side; sing in unison PGS /anta'bay/ to guide, assist in learning a skill TAG /antaba'y/ slowing down in order to wait BKL /anta'bay/ accompany, escort, stay with; stay tuned to a particular radio station or television channel AKL /anta'bay/ wait for " /antaba'y-an/ wait for one another NOTE: Also BKL_/a9ta'bay/ `accompany, escort, stay with; stay tuned to a particular radio station or television channel'. #open, #spacious (3) */antad/ open, spacious WMP: AKL /a'ntad/ gap, distance, space TNTB /atar/ open and spacious terrain #persist (3) */atag/ persist in an endeavor WMP: TAG /a'tag/ persistently, repeatedly TIR /atag/ intend, mean to do something BID /atag/ obstinate, stubborn JAV /atag/ one who does things only when pressured or threatened BAL /atag/ spur on, incite, encourage; invite; drive out NOTE: Also MGG_/ata/ `intend, want, mean to do something'. #block, #obstruct, #separate (3) */ata9/\1 block, obstruct; something which separates one area from another WMP: AKL /ata'9/ a room divider MAR /ata9/ block, counteract BIN /ata9/ blocking, obstructing " /m-ata9/ stop someone by blocking the way KAY /ata9/ a border board " /ata9 avo?/ the wooden edge to the hearth BJR /ata9/ fence around a graveyard; place for the hearth, made of heaped-up earth ACH /ateue"9/ dyke in a wet ricefield SAN /ata9/ a separated part of the floor of a Sangirese house; a guest whom one wishes to receive properly is invited to stay there #carry (3) */ata9/\2 carry on a shoulder pole between two people WMP: BON /a'ta9/ pole from which a load is suspended and which is supported on the shoulders of two men KAN /a'ta9/ pole, stick, shank of the /gima'ta/ (two baskets, round at the brim and square at the base, joined together with a pole, which also runs over them; it is much used by men to carry loads) TAG /a'ta9/ raising of a load to someone's head or shoulders AKL /ata'9/ put up, hoise KEL /9-ata9/ carry on a pole between two people #carry on a shoulder #pole (3) */ata9/\2 carry on a shoulder pole between two people WMP: BON /a'ta9/ pole from which a load is suspended and which is supported on the shoulders of two men KAN /a'ta9/ pole, stick, shank of the /gima'ta/ (two baskets, round at the brim and square at the base, joined together with a pole, which also runs over them; it is much used by men to carry loads) TAG /a'ta9/ raising of a load to someone's head or shoulders AKL /ata'9/ put up, hoist KEL /9-ata9/ carry on a pole between two people NOTE: Also IFG_/atta'9/ `act of two or more men who have to carry on their shoulders a load which is a heavy beam, a very big pig tied to a long pole, a trunk, or whatever it may be'. #cross#beam (2) */ata9/\3 crossbeam WMP: HAN /a'ta9/ one of the underlying cross-pieces used in constructing the flooring of a house; shorter flooring strips may be placed on the /a'ta9/ CEB /a'ta9/ shelf set next to a stove at the same height with it to hold the pots and pans MAR /anta9-an/ framework (as of a house); base line KEL /ata9/ crossbeam in house construction CMP: KED /ata9/ house beam #sacrifice (3a) */a'ta9/\4 sacrifice to the spirits WMP: ITW /a'ta9/ religious ceremonial float made in time of calamity DGT /a'ta9/ make a sacrifice or special offering to the spirits (a table is set up with food and gifts: rice, a chicken cooked without salt, cigarettes, sugar, etc.) ILK /a'ta9/ offer food to the spirits (a relic of animism) PGS /a'ta9/ offering composed of coconut, cake, etc. for the purpose of placating malevolent spirits, usually made before sunset; to make such an offering BKL /a'ta9/ a sacrifice offered to the /gugu'ra9/ (household spirits carried around on the person) as a sign of thanksgiving consisting of one tenth of the harvest, later eaten by participants in the ritual (Bikol mythology); gift, sacrifice " /mag-ata9/ offer or present a gift; to sacrifice something #arthropod (poisonous) (3a) */a'ta9 a'ta9/ poisonous arthropod WMP: DGT /a'ta9-a'ta9/ species of poisonous river crab TAG /a'ta9-a'ta9/ scorpion NOTE: Possibly a Tagalog loan in Casiguran Dumagat, although both the discrepancy in meaning between the forms, and the use of the DGT term to refer to a natural organism make this unlikely. #guess, #suspect (3a) */antap/ guess, suspect WMP: BON /a'tap/ to suspect, to guess (as a person's guilt) WBM /antap/ to guess something, predict something NOTE: Also SAN_/antibe?/ `suppose, suspect', GOR_/wantobu/ `guess, suspicion'. #unhusked #rice #grain (3) */ataq/ unhusked rice grain left among the husked grains WMP: ISG /atta'/ an unhusked kernel of rice mixed with husked or cooked rice ITW /atta'/ rice husk WBM /ata?/ unhusked rice mixed with that which is husked, or unground corn mixed with that which is ground MAR /ata?/ remnant composed of husks and unhusked rice KEL /ata?/ rice grains with a husk among the husked grains after pounding LgT /ata/ paddy with husk that remains after pounding BJR /antah/ remnant of rice husk that remains attached to grain after the pounding IBAN /antah/ padi in the husk that still remains after pounding MAL /antah/ husk; sheath (of grain). The pieces of dry husk shaken off in the process of winnowing MIN /atah/ rice-chaff TAE' /ata/ unhusked rice grain left among the husked grains NOTE: Also BKL_/ata'/ rice bran. Dempwolff (1938) assigned MAL_/antah/ to */qataq/ `raw, unripe', but the two forms clearly are distinct. #flat, #level (3) */ataR/ flat, level WMP: ILK /a'tar/ to level, to prepare (a new rice field) TAG /a'tag/ digging and levelling (said of roadbuilding and the like) SND /antar/ flat, level with the ground NOTE: With root */-taR/ `level, flat'. #cover (5) */atek/ cover, as with a blanket CMP: FOR /yatak/ cover, cover oneself with; envelop oneself with KEI /yatak/ cover, lay something across BURU /atek/ cover, as with a blanket #itch, #itchy (2) */atel/ itch, itchy dsj. */gatel/ (3) */atel/ itch, itchy dbl. */gatel/ WMP: MAR /antel/ itch MAR /antel-antel/ itchiness, craving or longing SND /ateul/ itch " /sireum ateul/ the small red ant BGS /ante?/ itchy CMP: SEL /atal/ itchy NOTE: Also DGT_/asel/ `type of itch on the feet (said to be caused by walking in animal urine)'. #still, #calm, #quiet (3) */ante9/ still, calm, quiet WMP: MAL(Jak.) /ante9/ gentle; quiet. Of children who play without disturbing their elders SND /ante9/ calm, peaceful, still, quiet, sweet (as a child, or a woman) OJ /ante9/ quiet, calm, working steadily MAD /ante9/ still, calm, quiet (not speaking much) MAK /anta9/ be still, keep quiet; remain, reside NOTE: Also BAR_/onto/ `stop; keep quiet; remain', /anta/ `(priestly language) stop; keep quiet; remain'. If MAK_/anta9/ is connected with the latter form this comparison will be invalidated. Wilkinson (1959) erroneously gives Jakarta Malay /ante'9/, with last-syllable mid-front vowel rather than shwa. The correct form appears in Chaer (1976). Possibly with root */-te9/ `stare, look fixedly at'. #negative marker (2) */ati/\1 negative marker WMP: REJ /ati/ not yet CMP: BIMA /ati/ no, not; negative marker OC: MOTU /lasi/ negative particle, not M-A /ati/ not (jussive) NOTE: REJ_/ati/ does not show the expected breaking of the last vowel (to **/atey/). In this respect it behaves like the entire set of personal pronouns (Blust 1984). #there, #yonder (3) */ati/\2 there (distant) WMP: HAN /a'ti/ there, designating a place far from both speaker and person spoken to, especially if out of sight UJ /ati-h/ that (distant) BUSANG /ati/, /ati?/ third person demonstrative MLG /aty'/ here, in this place " /a'tsy/, /atsy'/ there, yonder; used of a place well known and conceived of, but not seen at the time of speaking #bedbug (3) */atimel/ bedbug dbl. */qati-mela/ WMP: ITW /assi'mal/ flea KEL /g-esimel/ bedbug TRING /simel/ bedbug NOTE: Also BLW_/te'mol/ `chicken lice'. #hear at a distance (3a) */a'nti9/ hear at a distance (?) WMP: DGT /ate'9/ hear the sound of wild game while hunting AKL /a'nti9/ keen, good, sharp (of hearing) #sweat, #perspire (2) */ati9/ sweat, perspiration WMP: MAR /ati9/ perspiration; sweat, perspire SCH /ati9/ sweat, perspiration CMP: YMD /yati-n/ sweat " /na-yatin/ to sweat #pinch, #join, #tongs, #pincers (2) */atip/ pinch together WMP: CEB /a'tip/ join pieces by sewing, welding or pasting TIR /atif/ space closely, side-by-side LgA /atip/ forceps used to pick up hot coals CMP: BURU /ati-h/ squeeze with tongs or pincers " /ati-t/ tongs, pincers NOTE: Also SGH_/sotip/ `pincers'. #provoke, #fight, #insult (3) */atis/ provoke a fight WMP: CEB /a'tis/ bruise, cussing out or anything unpleasant that can be inflicted on one (example sentence refers to being `boxed') IBAN /atis/ exclaim; exclaim and egg on; (call out and) encourage people to quarrel NOTE: Possibly a product of chance convergence. #face (v.), #confront (3a) */atu'ba9/ to face, confront WMP: ITW /atu'ba9/ front " /ma-tu'ba9/ to face " /ma9a-tu'ba9/ confront BKL /mag-atu'ba9/ confront or face; face up to, contend with " /ka-atu'ba9/ the person that you are facing " /atuba'9-an/ front HAN /atuba'9/ front or presence " /sa atuba'9-an/ in front (of), in the presence (of) AKL /atu'ba9/ face (up to), confront, stand/appear in front of; front " /atuba'9-an/ front, in front of " /atuba9-a'n/ genitals HLG /atu'ba9/ to face, confront, stand before " /atuba'9-an/ in front of CEB /atuba'9/ face towards; set oneself to doing something as it needs to be done " /pa-atuba'9/ towards, in a direction to " /atuba9-a'n/ genitalia, usually female (euphemism) " /atuba'9-an/ place in front of, in the face of WBM /etuva9/ in front of; stand or be in front of someone or something MAR /atoba9/ face each other in court; equivalent SUB /gatba9/ to face NOTE: Also CEB_/atba'9/ `across, opposite; be in the place across; be opponents'. #dew (4) */au/ dew CMP: ROTI /au(s)/ dew OC: FIJ /yau/ dew RAR /au/ dew #yes (1) */au?/ yes F: ATY /au/ exclamation: yes; alright; oh! PAPORA /au'/ yes WMP: KAN /aw/ yes; yea; aye. Often added to other words, mostly conjunctions MAO /ao/ yes; pause to gain time in thinking process IBAN /au?/ affirmative, yes, indeed; give assent, agree to, accept MAL /au/ yes, it is so (Brunei, Sarawak) REJ /au/ yes SAS /ao?/ yes CMP: YMD /au/ yes OC: GED /au/ yes, certainly PMIC */au/ yes (in response to request, command) NOTE: Also ATY_/aau/ `exclamation: yes, alright, oh!', ILK_/au'/ `an interjection, dismissing', MGG_/ao/ `yes! (answer to a call from afar)', RMB_/ao/ `no, don't', GED_/aue/ `yes, certainly'. #wind (8) */aura/ type of wind OC: LOU /aur/ wind (generic) PAK /ouh/ wind (generic) PEN /aul/ wind (generic) MOTU /laura-bada/ southeast trade wind (brings refreshing coolness from the sea) NMB /aula/ wind NOTE: Also AUA_/auana/ `wind', NAUNA_/eul/ `wind (generic)', LOU_/aa/ `southeast wind', BUG_/aara/ `tradewind', KWAIO_/ala/ `southeast wind', KWAIO_/au/ `southeast wind, wind from sea'. I am indebted to Andrew Pawley for a more detailed gloss of the Motu /laurabada/ than is provided in Lister-Turner and Clark (1930). #exclamation of #surprise (8) */awa/ exclamation of surprise OC: GLB /awa/ exclamation of surprise MOTA /awa/ exclamation in lamentation, sad surprise #atmosphere, #space between earth and sky (2) */awa9/ atmosphere, space between earth and sky WMP: PGS /awa'9/ extent, spaciousness " /ma-awa'9/ extensive, spacious KAP /a'wa9/ window TAG /awa'9/ interval of space CEB /awa'9/ space between the upper two front teeth DIB /ma-awa9/ clear, open (as a road) WBM /awa9/ open, as a field; clear; used of a crowd that steps aside to open up a path MbKC /awa9/ atmosphere, heavens where the birds fly KEN /awa9/ space; the air KAY /awa9/ open up (as a window); make a space; opening; clear away undergrowth; navigable channel in a river MAL /awa9-awa9(-an)/ airy interspace between earth and sky KB /awa9-awa9/ atmosphere, firmament REJ /awa9-awa9/ atmosphere, outer space SND /awa9-awa9/ atmosphere OJ /awa9-awa9/ sky, air " /(m)a9-awa9-awa9/ (being) in the air, moving through the air JAV /awa9/ cloud " /awa9-awa9/ sky; (up in) the air BAL /awa9-awa9/ air, sky, unlimited space SAS /awa9-awa9/ atmosphere " /9-awa9-awa9/ float or flutter in the air (of things) MAK /awa9-awa9/ atmosphere CMP: KOM /awa9/ sky KMB /awa9u/ atmosphere, firmament, sky NOTE: Also CEB_/haw?a9/ `empty'. With root */-wa9/ `wide open space'. #help, #assistance (3) */awat/ help, assistance WMP: HAN /a`wat/ help, assistance " /um-a'wat/ to help NgD /awat/ to help, save, rescue, deliver #beckon with the hand (2) */away/\1 beckon with the hand WMP: OJ /away/ beckon, wave to; signal (beckon) to come closer JAV /awe-awe/ to wave " /9-awe(awe)/ wave to or at BAL /awe/ wave the hands, make signs with the hands CMP: BIMA /awe/ call by beckoning with the hand SIKA /awe/ beckon someone with the hand NOTE: Also SIKA_/gawe/ `beckon someone with the hand'. #face (3) */away/\2 face WMP: DALI /avai/ face DPB /awe/ face NOTE: Also AMIS_/laway/ `face', MATU_/jaway/ `face', TANJONG_/yauai/ `face'. This item may be a chance resemblance, but the admittedly problematic comparison proposed in Blust (1970) has since been strengthened by the inclusion of Dairi-Pakpak Batak /awe/. #know, #I don't know (3) */away/\3 I don't know! WMP: PGS /a'wey/ I don't know! (said by speaker of himself; may be followed by pronoun or phrase marked for topic) WOL /aai/ I don't know! NOTE: Also TAG_/aywa'n/ `don't know', MGG_/aik/ `I don't know', KALIAI-KOVE_/aaio/ `I don't know (uncertainty)', DY_/ai/ `interjection: I don't know'. Wolio shows loss of intervocalic */w/ in e.g. */kawit/ > /kai/ `hook', but DY_/ai/ cannot regularly reflect */away/, since this form would have become POC_*/awe/. #rattan (3) */away/\4 rattan variety WMP: KAP /a'we/ kind of rattan ACH /awe/ rattan TNTB /awe/ curved thorns of the rattan NOTE: Evidently distinct from */quay/ `rattan (generic)'. The meaning of this form remains somewhat in doubt. #rushing of water in a river (3) */awer/ rushing of water in a river WMP: KAN /a'wel/ buzz, roar, hum, whir (stones thrown with force, spinning tops, etc.) ILK /a'wer/ the sound of a swollen river, a strong wind " /ag-awer/ to roar (streams, wind) KEL /awer/ rapids in a river SND /awer/ hold back (horse), flow less forcefully (water) NOTE: Also ITB_/aber/ `roaring', MUR_/abah/ `rapids', SA'A_/awa/ `to roar, of flood'. #cloth #cover (3) */awi/ cloth cover WMP: MAR /awi/ spread, cover (e.g. for a table), cushion, bedspread IBAN /awi/ cloth, cover, coverlet, counterpane, bedspread, shawl #exclamation of #annoyance, #surprise (1) */aya/\1 exclamation of annoyance, surprise, etc. F: AMIS /aya'/ exclamation showing displeasure or question WMP: ILK /aya'/ an adverb of interrogation implying an additional notion of wonder MSK /aya/ exclamation of tiredness or release from tension CMP: KMB /aya'/ exclamation of astonishment OC: GED /aia/ interjection indicating wonder, astonishment, etc. BUG /aia/ exclamation AA /aia/ exclamation of assent, of wonder MSH /aia/ slang. Interjection: good grief! Nuts! MOTA /aia/ exclamation of assent: that's it! NOTE: Also IFG_/ayaya'/ `exclamation to express one's astonishment or surprise', KAY_/ayah/ `exclamation of surprise', JAV_/ayah/ `exclamation of incredulity'. For expressive reasons PAN_*/aya/ probably bore a contrastive final accent. As with */ai/, the form of this word undoubtedly is a product of the operation of language universals. However, this in itself need not disqualify it from use in reconstruction, since the same universal tendencies would have operated in the past as in the present. #father's sister, #father's sister's husband (1) */aya/\2 father's sister, father's sister's husband F: ATY /aia/ mother, mother's sister. Used in direct address only; otherwise /iaia/ ( < /i/ `prefix for persons', plus /aia/) WMP: WBM /aya-?/ aunt (includes several degrees of collaterality) SUB /gaya/ maternal uncle (Churchill 1913) TAO /aya/ term of respect for male nobility (sultan, datuq) of the same generation as one's father (including father); hence: father, uncle BIS(B) /i-aya-9/ elder sibling (vocative form used only by male speaker) SERU /aya/ aunt, uncle SADONG /aya-9/ mother (Lebar 1975:195) KEMBAYAN /oya/ mother (Hudson 1970:310) IBAN /aya-?/ uncle, stepfather. Term of address for men of speaker's father's generation; term of reference for the hearer's father " /aya? ibu?/ aunt MAL /aya-h/ father; sire. More respectful than /bapa?/ ACH /aya-h/ father SIM /aea/ father " /mal-aea/ have a father SND /aya-h/ father JAV /y-aya/ father BAL /aya-h/ father (refined speech) DAMPELAS /aya/ mother (address form) MAK /aya/ mother (for persons of high rank), mother's younger sister CMP: KMB /aya/ elder sibling LETI /yei/ father MOA /yei(-ni)/ uncle KEI /yai/ father (address form used by small children, and in mourning songs) FAGUDU /y-aya/ mother (Fortgens 1921:108) SHWNG: ARGUNI /yai/ mother NUM /yai/ father OC: MOTU /lala/ father's sister; brother's child (woman speaking) DOBU /yaia-na/ female of the first ascendant generation of one's father's village (Fortune 1963:37) BUMA /aia/ father NOTE: Also PAZ_/yah/ `older sister', MLG_/ray/ `father', SIKA_/?aa/ `aunt', KEI_/ai-t/ `father, uncle', BULI_/aye/, /aya-ke/ `mother! (vocative)', LAU_/aia/ `father's sister, brother's child (woman speaking)'. Not to be confused with the loanword for `governess' that appears as TAG_/aya/ `caretaker of children; governess', BID_/aya-h/ `female house servant, housemaid', NgD_/aya-9/ `wet nurse, overseer of children, house servant', MAL_/aya-h/ `Indian nurse or maid-servant. In contrast to /amah/ (Chinese), and /babu/ (Javanese)'. The meaning of this form is problematic, but is defended in Blust (1980), and Blust (1992). #follow, #walk after (3) */ayak/\1 follow, walk after WMP: KAY /ayak/ lead by the hand NgD /ayak/ come after, follow (someone who already has gone ahead) KB /ayak/ follow, walk after someone SB /ayak/ pursue, track #sift (3) */ayak/\2 sift, separate by sifting dbl. */qayag/ WMP: WBM /ayak/ sift or separate by straining through a sieve or by winnowing MAR /aiak/ sift NIAS /aya/ sieve " /mo-aya/ to sift REJ /ayo?/ rice sieve SND /ayak/ sift, winnow OJ /ayak/ sieve MAK /aya?/ sifted flour ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ma9-ayak/ to sift WMP: SND /9-ayak/ sift, winnow JAV /9-ayak/ strain or screen something MAK /a99-aya?/ to sift (only of dry substances) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */ayak-an/ sieve, strainer WMP: MAR /aiak-an/ sieve; sift SND /ayak-an/ sieve, strainer JAV /ayak-an/ strainer, sieve; screen MAK /ayakk-a9/ sieve, made of thin cloth or plaited bamboo #plait, #weave (3) */ayam/ plait, weave dbl. */an~am/ WMP: MIN /ayam/ to plait PM */ayam/ plait, weave #threaten, #confront violently (3) */ayat/ threaten, confront violently WMP: KAN /a'yat/ to set (two roosters) fighting ILK /a'yat/ to confront a gamecock with another gamecock " /um-a'yat/ quarrelsome, bellicose AKL /aya't/ to challenge (to a fight) " /pa9-aya't/ to affront, challenge (a whole group) DIB /ayat/ aim a spear, prepare to strike SAS /ayat/ threaten " /9-ayat/ to threaten TNTB /ayat/ threaten, menace " /ma-ayat/ raise sword, whip, or hand in threat #depart, #separate from (3a) */ayaw/\1 depart, separate from WMP: KAN /aya'w/ go away; depart; leave; quit; run away; scamper away BKL /aya'w/ divorce one another AKL /aya'w/ abandon, leave behind MSK /ayaw/ leave something; separate from, divorce #raid, go #headhunting (3) */ayaw/\2 raid, go headhunting dbl. */kayaw/ WMP: KAN /ayya'w/ pursue; hunt; take in; chase; catch WBM /ayew/ used of a supernatural being which causes sickness to a person so that he will revive the beliefs and practices of his ancestors MbS /ayaw/ raid a house or settlement and kill people at random " /me9-ayaw/ a raider KAD /azou/ to plunder KEN /ayau/ enemy; war KAY /ayan/ an enemy in war BM /ayow/ go out for booty; earlier: go headhunting NOTE: Possibly from */kayaw/ by independent analogical wrong-division of the affixed form */ma9-kayaw/ ([/ma9ayaw/]). #copulate, have #sexual #intercourse (3) */ayud/ copulate, have sexual intercourse dbl. */ayut/ WMP: DGT /ayo'd/ hammock IFG /ayu'd/ swing used by children, who rock themselves backward and forward AKL /ayo'd-ayo'd/ move the waist up and down, back and forth (as in the act of intercourse) KAY /ayun/ mate with, copulate (of animals only) NOTE: The basic notion of this term appears to have been that of a rocking, or rhythmically forward-and-backward movement, part of a semantic range often associated with medial */y/ in AN languages (Blust 1988:57-58). #block, #hinder, #obstruct (3) */ayum/ block, hinder, obstruct WMP: BAL /ayum/ block (a passage); set up obstacles TAE' /ayun/ hinder, impede, stand in someone's way so that he cannot move in his work #monkey (3) */ayu9/ monkey sp. WMP: ATTA /ayo'9/ monkey ISG /ayo'9/ monkey SGH /ayo9/ long-tailed monkey #swing, #sway, #rock (3) */ayu9/ swing, sway, rock WMP: MAR /aio9/ to hang KAY /avet ayu9/ a springing suspended cradle CMP: RMB /azo9/ swing, sway, rock NOTE: Also IFG_/ayo'9/ `cradle, or what is used as a cradle; act of rocking; MAR_/aio?o9/ `earthquake'. #copulate, have #sexual #intercourse (3) */ayut/ copulate, have sexual intercourse dbl. */ayud/ WMP: BON /a'yot/ sexual desire; lust; be licentious KAN /a'yot/ semen, sperm; humor. Applied to the male fecundating fluid and the humor from the vulvo-vaginal glands KAP /ayut/ coitus MSK /ayot/ have inordinate sexual desire " /ma-ayot/ immoral man, sex offender MAL /ayok-ayot-an/ priapus BI /me9-ayut/ copulate NOTE: The available glosses suggest that this term in Proto-Philippines may have referred to sexual desire instead of or in addition to sexual intercourse. Wilkinson's gloss for Malay (`priapus') is obscure; if the intended meaning was `priapism' the semantic inference for Proto-Philippines can be extended to Proto-Western Malayo-Polynesian. #stamp, #dance, #tread (3) */anzak/ stamp the feet WMP: KB /anjak/ trot (of a horse), hop happily around (of children) TB /anjak/ leap, dance TAE' /andak/ stamp the feet NOTE: With root */-zak/ `step, tread'. #summon (3) */azak/ summon others to join an activity WMP: MAL /ajak/ suasion to action MAL /ajak-kan/ invite; press; incite OJ /ajak/ ask, invite (to do something together) JAV /ajak/ suggestion to join in someone's activity TAE' /arak/ summon, call up; call together one's subordinates for collective work, gather #term of #address, #male (3) */azuq/ term of address to males WMP: TIR /adu?/ term of address used to males of the next younger generation by older persons of either sex; often implies that their name or teknonym is not known to the speaker IBAN /ajuh/ term of address used between men (only intimates) NOTE: Also PUY(T)_/ariH/ `a man's male friend', PAI_(W)_/qadju/ `friend (women's word)'. Systems of address terms used between members of the same sex are not uncommon in the languages of the Philippines and western Indonesia. The present cognate set suggests that such systems may have a long history. #conjunction, #or, #if, #perhaps, #because (2) */ba/\1 conjunction: or, if; perhaps; because WMP: MLG (Prov.) /va/ or, nor, though, whether, neither, if. It is also used to form several indefinite pronouns and adverbs TB /ba/ and SIM /fa/ still, yet, then, because BAR /ba/ perhaps (makes the following word indefinite) UMA /ba/ or, perhaps (4) */ba/ but, if CMP: MGG /wa/ so long as, but, if, not BURU /ba/ only, just (8) */mpa/ or, because, but, perhaps OC: RAL /ba_/ or, because, whether; if; perhaps ROV /ba/ but, although, however, or EDDY /ba/ but BUG /ba/ disjunctive conjunction, or NGG /mba/ adverb, introduces doubt MOTA /pa/ but, and GLB /ba/ because, so that, as, for PON /pa/ since (contrary to expectations) NOTE: The appropriateness of including all of these forms in a single cognate set is perhaps open to question. However, reflexes of */ba/ appear to function as conjunctions in nearly all of the languages cited, and semantically many of them introduce an element of doubt, qualification or negation. Both Bare'e and Uma /ba/ are said to be shortened forms of /bara/ (< */bara9/ `marker of uncertainty, conditionality or hope'), but the basis for this interpretation is unclear. #interjection, #exclamation (2) */ba/\2 interjection or exclamation WMP: TAG /ba/ interjection (short for /aba'/) expressing disgust or surprise AKL /ba(h)/ interjection, expressions of disbelief CEB /ba/ in exclamations: how unbelievable that it is that way!; though TIR /ba/ an emphatic particle, with the sense of ``really'' IBAN /ba(h)/ exclamation to direct attention TB /ba/ expressions of astonishment NIAS /ba/ interjection BM /ba/ exclamation of delight CMP: NGA /ba/ cry out loudly, shriek ROTI /ba/ cry intended to frighten someone (8) */pa/ interjection; to startle OC: MOTU /ha/ interjection: warning, forbidding; look out! MOTA /va/ expletive LNW /fa/ make a sudden and alarming noise, to startle, jerk, to shock, cause shock, etc. HWN /ha_/ exclamation NOTE: Also ILK_/baa'/ `an interjection to startle people or to make children laugh', NgD_/bah/ `interjection of astonishment', BAL_/bah/ `interjection of amazement', UMA_/ba?/ `interjection', NGG_/mbaa/ (with nasal grade initial) `exclamation, look out!'. The lengthened or doubled vowels in the Ilokano and Nggela forms and the occasional final //h// in WMP languages may be motivated in different ways by the emotive character of this word. #preposition; #at, #on, #in, #to (2) */ba/\3 preposition: at, on, in, to WMP: IBAN /ba/ at, in, on, with KB /ba/ at, on, upon, to, til NIAS /ba/ in, at, on, upon, through CMP: TET /ba/ to, in, at, on; where the sense is ``arriving'' at, on, or to (contrasts with /iha/, where the sense is ``being'' at, on or to) (8) */pa/ OC: MMb /pa/ in, at, from, to LABEL /ha/ in, at, on, during ROV /pa/ in, at, on, from, to NOTE: PMP has well-established generic locative prepositions */i/ and */di/ which appear to cover approximately the same semantic range as */ba/. The semantic distinction between TET_/ba/ (``arriving'' at, etc.) and /iha/ (``being'' at, etc.) may also have applied to PMP_*/ba/ and */i/, */di/, but there is as yet no comparative support for this interpretation. #under, #below (2) */ba/\4 under, below WMP: IBAN /ba/ under, below MLG /i-va/ low, not high CMP: MGG /wa/ under, below (8) */mpa/ OC: RAL /ba/ down NOTE: Presumably connected with */babaq/ `under, below', though the connection remains obscure. #interrogative #particle (3) */ba/\5 postverbal interrogative particle WMP: TAG /ba/ interrogative particle CEB /ba/ question marker used in questions with no interrogative MAR /ba/ interrogative marker SUB /ba/ interrogative particle MLG /va/ interrogative particle NOTE: This grammatical marker appears in several languages of the central and southern Philippines, but thus far is attested outside the Philippines only in Malagasy (Dempwolff reconstructed */ba/ based on reflexes in Tagalog and Malagasy, and I have been able to extend his documentation very little). All languages that contain a reflex of */ba/ are verb-initial, and in all cases the reflex of */ba/ is postverbal. Panganiban (197 ) gives TAG_/ba/ in the Manila-Bulacan area, but /ga/ or /baga'/ in Kumintang. Reid (p.c.) speculates that TAG_/ba/ is a reduction of earlier */baga'/, and attempts to relate this interrogative marker to ILK_/baga'/ `say, tell, speak, declare, utter, relate' and similar forms in other northern Philippine languages. ILK_/baga'/, however, almost certainly reflects */bajaq/ `say, relate, announce', and the broader comparative evidence suggests that Kumintang TAG_/baga'/ is compounded of earlier monosyllables. #go (4) */ba/\6 go CMP: TET /ba/ go, proceed SEL /ba/ walk, go, go away, go toward KEI /ba/ go, go away, walk (8) */pa/ OC: RAL /ba/ (NG) tread, go MOTU /ha/ aux. verb meaning ``to go and'' NGG /va/ go; expressing purpose or intention of action, as in English ``I am going to'' MOTA /va/ go or come; the same used as auxiliary with the notion of going on, but not easy to distinguish from the causative /va/ LNW /va/ to go SEA /ha/ go, leave, depart NOTE: Paton (1973) describes LNW_/va/ as a short form of /van/ `go, pass' (< POC_*/pano/). Since original medial nasals are otherwise retained in Lonwolwol and since none of the other languages from which cognates are cited here could regularly reflect POC_*/pano/ (or PMP_*/panaw/) Paton's interpretation of the Lonwolwol form appears to be unjustified. #carry, #pick-a-back (1) */baba/\1 carry a person pick-a-back; ride pick-a-back F: AMIS /fafa/ carry a baby tied on one's back; to ride piggy back (2) */baba/ carry on back WMP: ITB /mi-vava/ carry a baby at the side (back or front) of the body DGT /ba'ba/ carry a person ``piggyback''; cloth sling used for carrying a baby TAG /baba'/ carried on back or piggy-back (as Eskimos and Japanese carry their babies); coitus of quadrupeds HAN /ba'ba/ carry (something) on the back, as in a pack CEB /ba'ba/ carry something on the back, not tied MAR /bawa/ carry, as on the back WBM /bava/ carry on the back KAD /babo/ carry on the back KEL /babeh/ carrying basket, back pack " /mabeh/ carry something on the back MLG /babi/ (expected **/vavi/) carrying on the back MAL /bawa/ conveyance in one's own custody or possession; to bring with one KB /baba/ bring something, bring along, carry OJ /wawa/ carry, carry along, take along, bring SAN /bawa/ carry (without reference to the manner in which it is done) BM /baba/ carry on the back BGG /baba/ bring TAE' /baa/ bring WOL /bawa/ carry (esp. on the shoulder), bring; bring along; burden, load " /bawa-bawa/ pregnant CMP: LETI /wawa/ carry in a basket on the back ERAI /haha/ carry (on head or back) KEI /wa_v/ carry on the back PAU /haha/ carry on the back KOI /na-fafa/ carry on the back SHWNG: WAR /wawa/ sit on the back, carry on the back (as a child) (8) */papa/ OC: LOU /pap/ carry a person (as someone who is sick) on the back WUV /fafa/ carry a person on one's shoulders (legs astraddle the neck) MUS /bao/ (NG initial) carry pick-a-back ROV /papa/ carry a child on one's back NGG /papa/ carry pick-a-back LAU /fafa/ carry on shoulders, pick-a-back; carry a bag round the neck AA /haha/ carry one the back SA'A /haha/ carry a person on one's back ARS /baha/ (NG, OG) carry pick-a-back or in cloth on back LNW /baba/ (NG) used of a baby, to ride (on its mother's back), or of the mother to carry by slinging on the back " /fefa/ carry a baby (or child) slung on the back FIJ /vava/ carry a child on the back TON /fafa/ carry on the back; be carried, have a ride on someone's back SAM /fafa/ carry (child or other load) on one's back ANU /papa/ carry a person -- generally a small child -- on one's back, piggyback fashion MAO /waha/ carry on the back HWN /waha/ carry on the back, as a child NOTE: Also MOTA_/pepe/ `carry a child on back or hip'. If there is one prototype meaning that can be identified for */baba/ it is: `to carry a child pick-a-back'. The term presumably also extended to the transport of sick or injured adults in a similar manner, but its full semantic range remains unclear. The nominal referents in Casiguran Dumagat, Bario Kelabit and Wolio fail to agree, and probably are secondary. BIMA_/wa?a/ `carry', MGG_/ba/, /wa/ `carry, accompany, take along' exhibit an apparent semantic generalization similar to that seen in Malay, Karo Batak, Old Javanese and some of the languages of Sulawesi, but show phonological irregularities which cast doubt on the propriety of including these forms in the present cognate set. #father (2) */baba/\2 father WMP: MLG /baba/ father CMP: BIMA /baba/ father ENDEH /baba/ father (Lebar 1972) ATONI /baba-f/ MB, FZH (Lebar 1972) FOR /baba/ address of children to their father, of elders to male children, and to any male person with whom one wishes to speak confidentially KEI /bab/ address to uncle or father (8) */mpampa/ OC: SEA /pap/ uncle, etc. PON /pahpa/ father, any person one's father would call brother SAM /papa/ (children's language) Dad, Daddy NOTE: Also MAK_/ba?ba/ `father (esp. as an address to /hajis/)'. As part of universal nursery language this item could have arisen independently in all or many of the languages in which it appears. At the same time universal tendencies were no less operative in proto-languages than they are in attested languages, and */baba/ is just as likely to be an inherited form which resisted regular sound change in languages such as Malagasy, Atoni, Fordat and Kei as a result of the recurrent reinforcement that nursery language provided. In any event the term was clearly used in child language rather than as the normal adult word for `father' (*/ama/). #soak (3a) */ba'bad/ soak WMP: BON /ba'bad/ soak TAG /ba'bad/ staying to soak BKL /ba'bad/ soak HAN /ba'bad/ dip in liquid " /badbad/ soak AKL /ba'bad/ soak CEB /ba'bad/ soak NOTE: HAN_/badbad/ appears to be a secondary development from a form which originally lacked a medial cluster. #reproduce, #multiply (3) */babaD/ reproduce, multiply WMP: MAR /babad/ multiply; descendant WBM /bavad/ of plants, animals or humans, to reproduce one's kind SND /babar/ give birth JAV /babar/ proliferate; unfold, open out; be born; produce, put out; give birth #group, #collection, #swarm (2) */baban/ group, collection, swarm WMP: NIAS /bawa/ troupe, herd, swarm BAR /bawa/ together, in one troupe, herd or flock CMP: KMB /wawa9u/ group, collection of things that belong together NOTE: With root */-ban/ `group, company'. #fish, #snapper: #%Lutjanus% spp. (3) */bamba9en/ a fish, the snapper: %Lutjanus% spp. WMP: TAG /bamba9in/ flame-colored snapper fish: %Lutjanus fulvus% MAL /bamba9an/ a snapper: %Lutjanus% spp. MAK /bamba9a9/ sea bass: %Lutjanus erythropterus% NOTE: Malay normally reflects prepenultimate */a/ as shwa within a morpheme, but not in suffixed disyllabic bases. The failure of the first */a/ to weaken in /bamba9an/ therefore suggests that this word was treated as a suffixed disyllable. Given this observation and the fact that all three languages regularly assimilate */9/ to a following stop, the forms cited here and those assigned to */ba9ba9/ `fish sp.' may turn out to belong to a single cognate set. #lower surface, #bottom; #short, #low; #below, #beneath, #under (2) */babaq/\1 lower surface, bottom; short, low; below, beneath, under WMP: ITB /hi-vava/ lower part, lower region ILK /baba'/ below ISG /baba'/ low BON /baba/ the lowlands, particularly the Ilocos region DGT /ba'ba/ humble, low in rank, cheap; low in intelligence KAP /baba'?/ low place, underneath TAG /ba'ba?/ lowness (physical); humbleness " /i-baba'?/ under part, lower part BKL /baba'?/ short in height, squat, low " /i-baba'?/ downstairs, below HAN /ba'ba?/ lowness, shortness MAR /baba?/ lower, below, down WBM /bava?/ short NgD /bawah/ be subjugated, be under someone's command MAL /bawah/ position under or below, nether side " /di-bawah/ beneath SAN /bawa/ beneath CHM /papa?/ down, below, bottom, southward, downward, beneath CMP: BIMA /wawa/ lower oneself, stand so as to make oneself lower than another KOM /wawa/ under, below, beneath; west, western KMB /wawa/ beneath; west NDAO /baba/ short SAVU /wawa/ beneath, under " /b^ab^a/ short (not tall) SIKA /wawa/ beneath, under SEL /hah(a)/ beneath FOR /vava/ beneath, south YMD /babe/ beneath, southern KEI /wa_v/ North; northward, beneath SHWNG: BULI /pa_p/ beneath, under (8) */papaq/ OC: KEHERARA /baba/ under WEDAU /vava/ downwards, towards the sea (King 1901) MUS /bao/ short SA'A /haha/ underneath; down, not used of points of the compass LNW /fa/ under, below, down, deep, far out at sea; North PMC */faa/ (expected **/fafa/) under, underneath; the bottom NOTE: Although a PAN term for `under, below' is unknown, */babaq/\1 and */babaw/\3 should be treated as a contrast set in PMP. Syntactically both followed */i/ `generic marker of location', a fact reflected not only in the syntax of many daughter languages, but also in occasional lexicalizations of the preposition + nominal expression. In isolation both */babaq/\1 and */babaw/\3 probably were nouns meaning `lower surface/bottom' and `upper surface/top'. Since they typically followed a preposition, however, their more common English translations would be `below, beneath, under' and `on, upon, over, above'. The following semantic problems are also noteworthy: (1) reflexes of */babaw/ refer to high country (headwaters of a river, highlands) in a number of languages. These usages could be products of convergence or could be retentions of a figurative usage similar to the literal senses of the directional terms */daya/ `upriver, toward the interior' and */lahud/ `downriver, toward the sea'. By contrast, a reflex of */babaq/ meaning `lowlands' has been noted only in Bontok. (2) reflexes of */babaq/ mean `short in height, low' in several widely separated languages. This usage could be a product of convergence or may have been a figurative counterpart of PMP_*/pandak/ `short'. An analogous usage */babaw/ = `tall' is attested only marginally in BGG_/babo/ `high-rising forest'. (3) reflexes of */babaq/ in Chamorro and in several CEMP languages refer to cardinal directions (`South' in Chamorro, Fordat and Yamdena, `West' in Komodo and Kambera, `North' in Kei and Southeast Ambrym). By contrast, no reflex of */babaw/ is known to refer to a cardinal direction. (4) perhaps the most intriguing problem concerning the comparative semantics of */babaq/ and */babaw/ are the semantic equations `above' = `outside' and `inside' = `below'. To grasp the full set of interrelations it will be necessary to consider PAN_*/dalem/ `inside; deep' as well. In both Bare'e (WMP) and Gilbertese (OC) the reflex of */babaw/ refers both to the upper surface and to the outside of things. In the Polynesian languages as a group the reflex of */babaw/ refers only to the outside. No comparable change has been noted for reflexes of */babaq/, but reflexes of */dalem/ `inside; deep' have come to mean `beneath, below, down, under' in a number of WMP and OC languages: IFG_/dalo'm/ `under, beneath, deep, low', CEB_/da'lum/ `beneath, below', SAM_/lalo/ `down, under', NAN_/lalo/ `under, below; the bottom; deep; low; humble, humility'. Moreover, reflexes of */dalem/ have followed the same semantic trajectory as reflexes of */babaq/ in coming to refer to the cardinal directions, as in NIUE_/lalo/ `below, under; the bottom; the west', RAR_/raro/ `beneath, under, below; down; the under or lower portion; west, westward, towards sunset, to leeward', MAO_/raro/ `the bottom, the under side; down; beneath, under; North' and HWN_/lalo/ `down, downward, low; under, beneath; leeward, southern'. The equation `above' = `outside' suggests that */qi babaw/ referred prototypically to the surface of water or the earth. Given a parallel semantic equation for reflexes of */qi babaq/ we would expect `below' to sometimes develop the meaning `inside'. Why the reverse has occurred (viz. that reflexes of */dalem/ `inside' have come to mean `below') is a continuing puzzle. #width, #breadth (3) */babaq/\2 width, breadth WMP: MAR /baba?/ width, breadth JAV /wawah/ spacious TAE' /baba/ breadth NOTE: Also MOTU_/lababa/ `wide, as cloth, road, etc.; breadth', RAL_/taba_ba_/ `wide, broad, spacious (as a cloth); breadth'. #off course (3) */babas/ blown off course WMP: ILK /baba's/ to miss -- the mark one shoots at, the harbor on account of contrary winds, the habits of a different rank in society, etc. MAL /babas/ blown quite out of one's course, not merely deflected NOTE: At first glance this appears to be a straightforward comparison. However, Malay should reflect */babas/ as **/bawas/. Malay has reduced original obstruent clusters in reduplicated monosyllables, and there is some evidence that cluster reduction occurred after the change */-aba/ > /-awa-/. If so, MAL_/babas/ could reflect */basbas/. However, there is no evidence that Ilokano has reduced obstruent clusters in reduplicated monosyllables. It is possible that this comparative irregularity is a product of borrowing. Since Ilokano is far more likely to have borrowed from Malay than the reverse, a borrowing hypotheses implies that MAL_/babas/ reflects a pre-Malay innovation */basbas/ which reached Ilokano via Malay sailors (who were perhaps blown off course?) at some time after the reduction of medial obstruent clusters in Malay. Alternatively the comparison -- despite its strong appeal -- may be an etymological siren. #belly (3) */babat/ belly of an animal WMP: MAR /babat/ belly BI /babat/ tripe SND /babat/ paunch (of a ruminant) JAV /babat/ paunch (of a ruminant) NOTE: If BI_/babat/ is directly inherited the etymon must have been */batbat/, as the sequence */-aba-/ normally became MAL, BI_/-awa-/. #rat, #mouse (3) */babaw/\1 rat, mouse dbl. */balabaw/ WMP: SML /babaw/ rat SGH /babu/ mouse #shallow (3) */babaw/\2 shallow WMP: ITB /hi-vavaw/ shallow TAG /ba'baw/ shallowness, lack of depth BKL /ba'baw/ shallow, superficial MAR /babaw/ shallow DPB /babo/ shallow (as a river) NIAS /bawo~/ shallow SAN /bawo/ shallow, as where the sea floor is elevated BM /babow/ shallow MAK /bawo/ shallow, shallow place NOTE: In the dictionaries of several languages (e.g. Bikol, Nias) the reflexes of */babaw/\2 and */babaw/\3 are combined as differing senses of a single polysemous form. Given the semantics of e.g. English \superficial this interpretation has some a priori plausibility. However, the occurrence of a monosyllabic root */baw/ `shallow' in this and other forms (see appendices) strongly suggests that `shallow' is the \primary \sense of */babaw/\3, not a secondary extension from the meaning `upper surface; top'. The two forms are accordingly regarded as distinct, despite certain points of semantic similarity. #upper surface, #top; #highlands; #on, #upon, #over, #above (1) */babaw/\3 upper surface, top; highlands; on, upon, over, above dbl. */bawbaw/ F: ATY /babaw/ surface; on top of, above; later, get ahead, cross over SAI /babaw/ above, overhead " /?i babaw/ high above KAV /babaw/ upper surface, upper part, top " /ta babaw/ above AMIS /fafaw/ headwaters, source of a river; leaders with higher rank PAI /vavaw/ up, above " /i vavaw/ upon WMP: KAP /ba'bo/ up, upstairs, above BKL /ba'baw/ place something over or put something on top HAN /ba'baw/ surface, top, uppermost surface; mountains, as opposed to lowlands; in the mountains; source, referring to a river; upstream WBM /di-vavew/ upon, over, above NIAS /bawo~/ highland, plateau; upper surface; on, upon BGG /babo/ high-rising forest BAR /wawo/ upper surface, upper part; the outside of something TAE' /babo/ topmost layer of rice that has been cooked; fontanel of a child WOL /bawo/ top, upper side PAL /bab/ area or space above; top; surface CMP: BIMA /wawo/ peak, summit; on top of NGA /vavo/ atmosphere, surface (as of water); above, on, over SIKA /bawo/ up, above ROTI /bafa-k/ (expected **/bafo-k/) upper surface of a liquid LETI /waw-na/ (< */wawa-na/) on, upon SEL /haha/ on, upon PAU /haha/ upper side BURU /fafa-n/ (something's) top part SOB /fafo-n~/ upper surface, upper part; top sheet of the sail (8) */papo/ OC: LAU /fafo/ the top; on, above " /i fafo-na/ on the top " /fafo-?ile/ beyond the reef, outside SA'A /haho/ above, used with locative /i/ (/i haho-mu/ `above you'); uplands; wash-boards on gunwale of an overseas canoe ARS /haho/ above, upon, over GLB /ao/ the upper part of, the surface, the outside, the back, the exterior SAM /fafo/ outside, out of doors; overseas REN /haho/ outside MAO /waho/ the outside; the open sea; the coast, as opposed to inland HWN /waho/ outside, beyond, out, outer, outward ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */i babaw/ above, on top of F: SAI /?i-babaw/ (/?/ - unexpl.) high, tall SAR /i-vavu/ above, up WMP: TAG /i-ba'baw/ upper crust or surface " /im-ba'baw/ superficially BKL /i-ba'baw/ on top, on the surface AKL /i-ba'baw/ top, uppermost part; upstairs KB /i-babo/ up, above, on top of OC: LAU /i-fafo/ above SA'A /i-haho/ over, above MSH /i-oo/ on, upon; top, surface, over MOTA /i-vawo/ upon #weed (v.) (2) */babaw/\4 to weed (a garden, etc.) WMP: MAR /wawaw/ weed, as in rice field, remove turf NgD /bawaw/ weeding, pulling up grass (in garden, ricefield) TB /babo/ to weed (a ricefield) CMP: TET /faho/ to weed or harrow (rooting out the growth with the hands or a hoe) (8) */papo/ OC: NGG /vavo/ to weed LAU /fofo/ (< A) weed with a knife ARS /haho/ to weed NOTE: Based on the Ngaju Dayak and Toba Batak forms (Dempwolff posited PAN_*/babaw/ `to weed'. Milke (1968), on the other hand, proposed POC_*/wawo/ `to weed; weed' uncultivated land', a form that could not directly continue Dempwolff's reconstruction. Blust (1970) compared MAR_/wawaw/ with Milke's */wawo/ and suggested ``PAN'' (= PMP) */wawaw/ as a disjunct of Dempwolff's */babaw/. However, of the seven morphemes from six languages cited by Milke in support of */wawo/ only one (NGG_/vavo/) can possibly be considered a regular reflex (*/w-/ sometimes disappears and sometimes appears as /v-/). We are left with no alternative, then, but to dismiss both POC_*/wawo/ and PMP_*/wawaw/ as unmotivated by the evidence. #bird sp. (3) */babuy/\1 bird sp. WMP: ISG /ba'buy/ kind of bird KB /babi-babi/ kind of bird that gives notice of coming drought MAL /buro9 babi/ a bird, the adjutant: %Leptoptilus javanicus% #epilepsy (3) */babuy/\2 epilepsy WMP: MAR /babo-baboy/ epilepsy IBAN /gila babi/ epilepsy MAL /gila babi/, /pitam babi/, /sawan babi/ epilepsy SAN /saki? u wawi/ epilepsy NOTE: It seems likely that the PWMP word for `epilepsy' was a longer expression (perhaps */sakit babuy/), but the available evidence does not permit this inference. Because it derives from a distinct morpheme (PMP_*/beRek/ `domesticated pig'), NGG_/mbolo/ `pig; foam from the mouth, epilepsy' confirms that */babuy/ `epilepsy' derives from */babuy/ `pig', and indicates that this puzzling association was already present in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. #pig (1) */babuy/\3 pig F: PA */babuy/ pig TSOU /fuzu/ wild pig PR */baboy/ wild pig AMIS /fafoy/ pig; wild boar PUY(T) /vavuy/ wild pig PAI /vavuy/ wild pig: %Sus taivanus% WMP: ILK /ba'buy/ hog, pig BON /ba'boy/ old male pig, boar GAD /ba'buy/ domesticated pig DGT /ba'buy/ domesticated pig BKL /ba'boy/ wild boar CEB /ba'buy/ pig, pork TBW(A) /babuy/ wild pig WBM /bavuy/ pig TIR /babuy/ domesticated pig KEL /berek babuy/ boar KAY /bavuy/ wild pig LgA /babuy/ wild boar MAL /babi/ hog, pig SIM /bafu/ domesticated pig KB /babi/ pig TB /babi/ pig JAV /babi:/ domesticated pig SAN /bawi/ pig BGG /babuy/ pig BAR /mbawu/, /wawu/ pig TAE' /bai/ pig WOL /bawu/ pig, hog CMP: BIMA /wawi/ pig NGA /vavi/ pig SAVU /wawi/ pig SIKA /wawi/ pig ROTI /bafi/ pig ATONI /fafi/ pig TET /fahi/ pig, swine LETI /wawi/ pig SEL /hahi/ pig YMD /babi/ pig FOR /vavu/ pig KEI /wa_v/ pig PAU /hahu/ pig BURU /fafu/ pig ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */babuy halas/ wild pig WMP: TAE' /bai ala?/ wild pig CMP: YMD /baby-alas/ wild pig ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */babuy banua/ domesticated pig WMP: IBAN /babi menoa/ domestic pig TAMUAN /bawi bnua/ domesticated pig BAR /wawu banua/ domesticated pig CMP: YMD /bab' pnue/ domesticated pig {apostrophe after b} ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */babuy halas/ wild pig WMP: CEB /ba'buy ihalas/ wild pig TAE' /bai ala?/ wild pig CMP: YMD /babi alas/ wild pig ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */babuy lebu/ domesticated pig WMP: NgD /bawoi lewu/ domesticated pig LAHANAN /bavuy levu/ domesticated pig CMP: NGA /vavi lavu/ domesticated pig ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */babuy-an/ pigpen, pigsty, piggery F: AMIS /fafoy-an/ pigpen WMP: TAG /babuy-an/ piggery CEB /babuy-an/ piggery NOTE: Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed */babuy/ `pig'. Blust (1970) reconstructed */babuy/ `wild pig', */beRek/ `domesticated pig'. At the time this semantic distinction appeared to be justified since: a) the semantic profiles of their reflexes suggested that the two terms were not synonymous, b) the semantic categories `wild pig' and `domesticated pig' are represented by distinct morphemes in many of the languages of Taiwan, the Philippines, Borneo and Sumatra, c) although reflexes of */babuy/ refer distinctively both to the wild pig and to the domesticated pig, reflexes of */beRek/ refer distinctively to the domesticated pig in Taiwan and Borneo, but never refer distinctively to the wild pig, d) reflexes of */babuy/ are found in eastern Indonesia as far as the central Moluccas, but nowhere further to the east and e) apparent loanwords resembling POC_*/mpoRok/ are found in a number of the Papuan languages of New Guinea (Blust 1970, 1076). It now appears necessary to alter this interpretation in the following way: although */beRek/ evidently meant `domesticated pig' */babuy/ referred to pigs in general, with qualifications where needed. In other words, the glosses of */babuy/ and */beRek/ were not perfectly complementary, but partially overlapping. There are four types of evidence which support this conclusion: (1) If */babuy/ meant `wild pig' it has undergone a semantic change to the meaning `domesticated pig' in a disconcertingly large number of widely dispersed languages. Examples include: (Taiwan) SED_/babuy/, SAI_/baboy/, BUN_/babu/, SIR_/vavoy/, (Philippines) ATTA_/ba'bi/, GAD_/babuy/, DGT_/ba'buy/, ILT(K)_/bebuy/, ISN_/a'buy/, TIR_/babuy/, (Malaysia-Indonesia) OYA MELANAU, NARUM, MIRI, KIPUT_/babuy/, KEDAYAN_/bawi/, LEMANAK_/babi/, SIM_/bafu/, JAV_/babi/ `domesticated pig'. (2) The word for `pig' has been borrowed into a number of the languages of western Micronesia from an unknown Austronesian source. In each case the borrowed morpheme reflects */babuy/, never */beRek/. Since domesticated pigs are more likely to be borrowed than wild pigs, the borrowed reflex of */babuy/ must have referred, at least optionally, to the domesticated pig. While this does not mean that */babuy/ referred to the domesticated pig, the probability of such a reference is strengthened in direct relation to the age of the loan. Examples are: PAL_/babi'i/ `pig' (expected **/bab/), CHM_/babui/ `pig, swine' (expected **/papi/), YAP_/paabuuy/ `pig; bulldozer', WOLEAI_/paabiiy/ `pig, hog, boar, sow, swine' (expected **/faf/). The agreement of CHM_/babui/ `term used in keeping track of score by counting the number of games won in /tres siete/ (card game)' with MAL_/babi/ ```pig'', as a name for the fifth chicky-suit' points to what may be an independent Chamorro borrowing (from a Philippine languages?) of the same morpheme in a symbolic context. (3) Comparative evidence supports the reconstruction of */babuy banua/, */babuy halas/ `wild pig'. No similar descriptive terms have been reconstructed with */beRek/. (4) The reconstruction of PAN_*/babuy-an/ `pigpen, pigsty, piggery' is inconsistent with the reconstruction */babuy/ `wild pig', since it is the domesticated, not the wild pig that would be kept in pens. The comparative evidence under (3) and (4) could conceivably be a product of convergence. However, convergent innovation is an unlikely explanation of the forms assigned to */babuy banua/. IBAN_/menoa/ means `an area of land held and used by a distinct community', BAR_/banua/ means `house' and YMD_/pnue/ means `village'. If the association of */babuy/ with */banua/ is historically secondary it has no obviously semantic basis. But PMP_*/banua/ `inhabited territory; area supporting the life of the human community' forms a rather clear contrast set with PMP_*/halas/ `forest, uninhabited land', and this same opposition is seen in */babuy banua/ vs. */babuy halas/ (*/babuy lebu/ evidently contains a variant of */lebuq/ `village', and may be a product of convergence). In conclusion, Blust (1970) unjustifiably assumed the necessity of reconstructing semantically complementary terms `wild pig' and `domesticated pig'. While */babuy halas/ meant `wild pig' the domesticated pig was called either */beRek/ or */babuy banua/ (with */babuy lebu/ a less convincing third alternative). These observations undermine the suggestion in Blust (1976) that a reflex of */babuy/ was lost when AN speakers moved into the Pacific because they entered a region in which wild pigs were not yet present. Reflexes of both */babuy/ and */beRek/ are found in Formosan and WMP, but only */babuy/ is reflected in CMP and only */beRek/ in OC (despite Anceaux 1961:35) neither term is clearly reflected in SHWNG). The absence of a reflex of */babuy/ in Oceanic is thus no more in need of special explanation than the absence of a reflex of */beRek/ in Central Malayo-Polynesian. #sowbug, #woodlouse: terrestrial #isopod, #%Oniscus% (3) */babuy babuy/ sowbug, woodlouse: terrestrial isopod of the genus %Oniscus% WMP: ILK /babuyba'buy/ pill bug CEB /babuybabuy/ kind of louse which hides in crannies and lives in damp places; woodlouse KB /babibabi/ sowbug TB /babibabi/ kind of spider NOTE: Presumably a reduplication of */babuy/ `pig', though the conceptual basis for a connection between these terms remains unclear. Also MAL_/babi tanah/ `insect, unident.'. #mud, #waterlogged (3) */bacak/ muddy, waterlogged (of ground) WMP: CEB /basa'k/ field of wet-cultivated rice MAR /basak/ rice paddy; swamp or marsh " /basak-an/ land suitable for wet rice (flooded or wet) WBM /basak/ mud TIR /basak/ land made into rice paddies MAL (Jakarta) /bacak/ over-watered, of plants NOTE: With root */-cak/ `muddy'. #hoe, #chop (soil) (3) */bacuk/ to hoe, chop up soil WMP: MAR /basok/ farm or till the soil WBM /basuk/ till the soil " /Ibe-vasuk/ spirit deity of farming MAL (J) /bacok/ chop, cut up, cleave SND /bacok/ hack (with a knife, etc.) JAV /bacok/, /bacuk/ to hoe BAL /bacok/ stab, pierce NOTE: With unexplained change */u/ > /o/ in Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese. BULI_/bacu/ `axe' appears to be a loan. #millet (1) */baCaj/ millet sp. F: ATY (Matabalay) /basag/ millet WMP: HAN /ba'tad/ sorghum, a coarse annual grass, cultivated as a cereal (%Andropogon sorghum Linn. Brot.%) CEB /bata'd/ sorghum, kind of coarse grass used for forage: %Andropogon sorghum% MAR /bantad/ %Sorghum vulgare pers.% -- barley-like plant MAK /batara?/ millet sp. CMP: TET /batar/ maize NOTE: Also MAL_/batari/ `%Andropogon sorghum%'. The following more restricted reconstructions have been proposed: Proto-Formosan_*/baCaR/ `%Panicum miliaceum%' (Tsuchida_1977:90), Proto-Central_Philippines_*/batad/ `a plant: %Andropogon sorghum%' (Zorc_1979:43), ``Proto-Indonesian''_*/bataD/ `grain sp., millet' (Mills_1981:65). In addition, Mills notes the material earlier assembled by Heyne_(1950). #goat, #hair, #decoration, #spear, #staff (2) */banda9an/ goat hair decoration on a spear or staff WMP: MAL /tombak banda9an/ spear with a tuft of goat's hair on the shaft: an emblem of royalty TAE' /banda9an/ goat hair fixed on a bamboo pole, used in feasts (as by the /to ma{'}randi9/ at the death feast) {?? {'} is apostrophe; is the final consonant ng or eng ?} MAK /banra9an/ pike decorated with goat hair CMP: MGG /benda9an/ goat hair decoration on a spear, staff, etc. NOTE: Possibly spread by borrowing (cp. MAR_/bandera9/ `ceremonial tasseled spear', MAL_/bendera9/ `spear with a tuft of goat's hair on the shaft: an emblem of royalty', where borrowing appears very likely. The absence of prepenultimate neutralization in Malay is puzzling, and may indicate relatively recent affixation with /-an/. BM_/anda9an/ `old, long-haired goat', /manda9an/ `large long-haired goat', however, suggest that the trisyllable is old, whatever its original meaning. #draw, #line (3) */bad(e)ris/ draw a line WMP: CEB /badli's/ draw a line MAL /baris/ straight line NOTE: With root */-ris/ `scratch a line'. #nervous (3) */badi/ nervous spell WMP: SUB (Churchill_1913) /badi/ a nervous spell IBAN /badi/ sudden attack of sickness #pair, #boat (3) */bandu9/ pair of boats joined by a connecting platform WMP: CEB /bandu9/ large boat used to bring the net and fishermen out to the fishing grounds, consisting of a pair of smaller boats or a wide boat so made that a platform can be placed across it IBAN /bando9/ large sailing vessel; matching pair, set MAL /bando9/ twin; in duplicate; alike and linked. Of semi-detached houses with a common roof, two yolks in one egg-shell, etc. " /perahu bando9/ a Borneo flat-bottomed river-boat OJ /ban.d.u9/ together, at the same time JAV /baru9/ in time with (of gamelan beat) #jackfruit (3) */badut/ jackfruit sp. WMP: CEB /ba'rut/ the inedible pulp of the jackfruit which surrounds the edible flesh KEL /bua? badut/ jackfruit #grit, #sand, #gravel (2) */baDas/ grit, coarse sand, gravel WMP: KAP /bala's/ sand TAG /bala's/ crystallized syrup; coarse granulated sugar HAN /bara's/ sand; beach, seashore AKL /baea's/ sand " /baeas-o'n/ sandy, having sand (in) CEB /bala's/ sand; put sand somewhere; form sand-like particles KEL /bada/ sand NgD /baras/ sand; sandy SND /cadas/ pulverized sandstone ground; rocky ground JAV /wad.as/ a variety of sandstone CMP: NGA /tana vada/ cement NOTE: Also KMB_/wara/ `sand, gravel' (expected **/warahu/). Although most recorded reflexes of */badas/ are glossed `sand', it appears likely from the Sudanese, Javanese, and Ngadha reflexes and the competing form */qenay/ that */badas/ referred to coarse sand or gravel, while */qenay/ indicated fine sand. PAI_/baras/, /varas/ `pebbles, ballast' is given by Ferrell_(1982) as a loan from English through Japanese (also cf. JAV_/balas/ `a weight for holding or steadying something; ballast'). #fish sp. (3) */bagahak/ fish sp. WMP: CEB /bagha'k/ kind of medium-sized grouper MAL /begahak/, /gahak/ large silurid fish: %Belodontichthys dinema% #foolish (3) */bagak/ foolish WMP: TAG /ba9a'k/ foolish (said of young women) IBAN /bagak/ lively, vivacious (as a woman, when guests are present) MAL /bi9o9 bagak/ jackass, an absolute ass MIN /bagak/ bold, undaunted NOTE: Possibly with root */-gak/ `proud; boast'. #overgrown, #clumsy, #sluggish (2) */bagal/ overgrown, clumsy, sluggish WMP: TAG /ba'gal/ slowness to act MAR /bagal/ dullard MAL /bagal/ too tall or stoutly built; overgrown; clumsy; beyond the regulation size for cockfighting TB /ba9gal/ big, strong " /ma-ba9gal/ having a broad chest and face; large-boned DPB /ba9gal/ large, of inanimate things OJ /wagal/ rude, unmannered BAL /bagal/ too large, too coarse (basketry, carving) CMP: MGG /bagal/, /bahal/ obese, fat, big NGA /baga dzoge'/ of large, powerful build #molar #tooth (2) */bageqa9/ molar tooth dbl. */baReqa9/, */beReqa9/ WMP: KAP /ba'ga9/ molar tooth TAG /baga'9/, /bag?a'9/ molar tooth BKL /ba?ga9/ molar HAN /bag?a'9/ any of the molars and bicuspids AKL /ba'g?a9/ molar tooth, molar teeth CEB /bag?a'9/ molars MAR /baga9/ molar tooth WBM /baga9/ molar tooth BM /baga9/ molar tooth MDR /baga9/ molar tooth CMP: SOB /baga9/ molar tooth NOTE: All languages cited here except Kapampangan, Hanuno'o, Mandar, and Soboyo have merged PAN_*/R/ and */g/ as //g//. KAP_/ba'ga9/, HAN_/bag?a'9/ `molar tooth' are Central Philippine loans. Since Soboyo normally reflects */b/ as //f//, SOB_/baga9/ also appears to be a loan (presumably from a language of northern Sulawesi or the southern Philippines). We might therefore dismiss the present doublet of */baReqa9/ as a product of irregular sound correspondences introduced through borrowing. However, for this to be possible it would also be necessary to dismiss MDR_/bagan/ as a loan, despite the lack of a clear source language and the generally low probability that the same body part term would be borrowed independently by more than one language. For the present */bageqa9/ is thus maintained as a rather precarious doublet of */baReqa9/. #shrub, #tree, #%Gnetum gnemon% (3) */baguh/ a shrub or tree: %Gnetum gnemon% WMP: AKL /ba'go(h)/ bago tree: %Gnetum gnemon% CEB /ba'gu/ small wild tree the leaves of which are used as a vegetable: %Gnetum gnemon% MAL /bagu/ a shrub: %Gnetum brunonianum% SAS /bagu/ a tree the fruits and cooked leaves of which are eaten: %Gnetum gnemon% BM /bagu/ a thin-stemmed, short tree from the bast of which cordage is made: %Gnetum gnemon% MAK /bagu/ %Gnetum gnemon%; a tree which yields bast fiber used in making cordage NOTE: Where a specific identification is not given in the source reflexes of */baguh/ can easily be confused with reflexes of */baRu/ `%Hibiscus tiliaceus%' in languages that merge */g/ and */R/, as both are small trees which yield a strong bast fiber used in making cordage. Unlike the %Hibiscus tiliaceus%, the %Gnetum gnemon% is further useful as a source of food, since its leaves serve as an important vegetable in some areas (Merrill_1954). The semantic distinction between PMP_*/suka/ (q.v.) %Gnetum gnemon% and the present etymon remains unclear. #disease, #swelling (3) */baguq/ disease that causes swelling of body parts WMP: BKL /bago'?/ edema, dropsy CEB /bagu?/ disease characterized by general debility, swelling in the region of the stomach, and yellowish skin MAR /bago?/ enlarged spleen SIM /bahu?/, /baxu?/ swelling under the sole of the foot (apparently tertiary %Framboesia%) #laugh (3) */bahak/ laugh boisterously WMP: CEB /bahak-ha'k/ laugh boisterously MAL (W. SUM.) /bahak/ guffaw loudly #flood, #overflow (2) */bahaq/\1 a flood; to overflow, be in flood */wahir bahaq/ floodwaters WMP: TAG /baha'?/ flood BKL /baha'?/ flood HAN /baha'?/ flood AKL /baha'?/ flood; to overflow, flood CEB /baha'?/ flood; flow in a flood, flood over KEL /6bha?/ water BIN /b^a?/ water KIP /s6i?/ water NARUM /fa?/ water SA'BAN /p6i?/ water LgT /pi/ water BJR /ba?ah/ flood MAL /air bah/ freshet; floodwater in motion; the seasonal flooding of the ricefields SND /caah/ high water, flood OJ /wah/, /wa_h/ flood, spate, freshet, river swollen by rains, torrent (4) */baaq/, */waiR baaq/ CMP: MGG /wa?a/ floodwater, flood; to flood, flow, be carried off by a current RMB /wa?a/ to flow; be carried off by a current SAVU /wa/ to flood, inundate " /ei wa/ floodwaters ROTI /fa/ a stream; to flow, stream, flood SIKA /ba/ to stream, flow LAM /ba/ to stream, flow FOR /vaa/ flowing of a river (8) */pa_q/, */waiR pa_q/ OC: SA'A /lua haa/ high spring tide TON /fa_/ (of a river) to overflow, be in flood /vai fa_/ flood (from a river), river in flood NOTE: This term apparently was used both verbally and as a nominal attribute (in */wahiR bahaq/ `floodwaters'). It evidently referred to the overflowing of rivers, as opposed to marine flooding due to high tide (*/Ruab/). Both terms are reflected in SA'A_/lua haa/. #mouth (2) */bahaq/\2 mouth dbl. */baqbaq/, */beqbeq/ WMP: MbS /baha?/ mouth TIR /eba?/ mouth TBL /bak/ mouth KAY /ba/ mouth; window or door opening LgA /pa?/ mouth BIN /b^a?/ mouth KANOWIT /bah/ mouth CMP: SIKA /wa/ mouth; opening of a door NOTE: Although this form is reflected as a monosyllable in most languages, LgA_/p/ and BIN_/b^/ indicate an earlier cluster. If the complex stops of North Sarawak languages assigned by Blust_(1969, 1974) to */bS/, */dS/, */jS/, */gS/ sometimes derive from the medial clusters in reduplicated monosyllables, */baqbaq/ would have yielded reflexes with first-syllable shwa and ``complex'' medial consonant. Some of the above forms could conceivably reflect such a development, with further loss of the first syllable. On the other hand, MbS_/baha?/ suggests that there was a disyllabic word base with medial */S/ which could have yielded the North Sarawak initial consonants as reflexes of */bS/. If valid, this implies that */baqbaq/ -- presumably a reduplication of */baSaq/ -- actually was */baSaq baSaq/. BULUDUPI_(1)_/babpa/ `mouth', cited by Ray_(1913), may support this interpretation. For the agreement in the extended meanings of KAY_/ba/, SIKA_/wa/, cf. note to */baqbaq/. #odor, #stench (3) */bahu-an/ odor, stench WMP: NgD /bewan/ stink CHM /pagw-an/ scent; give off odor, aroma, smell NOTE: Also KEL_/buen/ `smell, odor', MUK_/bun/ `odor', /pe-bun/ `to smell, have an odor'. Evidently a suffixed form of Dempwolff's */bahu/ `stench', to which he assigned the Ngaju Dayak form. #kinship term, #parents of married couple (3) */baisan/ the kinship tie between the parents of a married couple WMP: TAG /baysa'n/ a parent of the spouse of one's offspring; the relation between parents of a married couple MUK /bisan/ son-in-law, daughter-in-law MAL /be'san/ the relationship of persons whose children have intermarried ACH /bisan/ the relationship of persons whose children have intermarried (the /bisan/ of the bride are thus the consanguineal kin of her husband) KB /be'san/ the `affinal', not true brother or sister; reciprocal term used between the parents of a man and the parents of his wife " /tura9 be'san/ an affectionate term for the mother of one's children; term used between brother and sister, and also between husband and wife SIM /bisan-bisan/ parents-in-law REJ /bisan/ relationship of parents whose children are married to each other SND /be'san/ reciprocal term used between two fathers or mothers whose children have married: co-parent-in-law " /be-besan-an/ (of two fathers or mothers) to stand or come to be in such a relationship to one another JAV /be'san/ parent(s)-in-law of one's child ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */baisan-an/ ?? WMP: TAG /baysan-an/ betrothal party held by parents of bride and groom JAV /be'san-an/ to become mutual parents-in-law NOTE: Also MAL_/bisan/ `the relationship of persons whose children have intermarried'. The gloss of MUK_/bisan/ is doubtful both because of its divergence from that of the cognate term in other languages, and because another term (/benatew/) was also recorded for `child-in-law'. #loosen, #untie, #unwrap (3) */bajbaj/ loosen, untie, unwrap {keep from orig. gloss? unravel; to clear forest (fig.?)} WMP: ILK /bagba'g/ unravel, disentangle, disengage the threads of; to clear (of underbrush, etc.) " /bagbag-en/ unravel, disentangle, disentangle the threads of ISG /badba_d/ unbind, untie, to loose, to loosen BON /badbad/ untangle, unwind KAN /bagbag/ undo, unstitch, unsew; demolish IFG /badba'd/ act of unwinding something (e.g. a string) DGT /badbad/ unravel, untwist (of rope which becomes unravelled at the end) BKL /badba'd/ disentangle, loosen (as a knot, a rope); unwind, uncoil AKL /ba'dbad/ unravel, take apart (as threads in a garment); to fray, get unravelled CEB /badbad/ untie, get untied; liquidate a debt; solve a problem; translate " /badba'd/ untie, get untied MAR /bebad/ unroll, unfurl, uncoil MAK /ba?bara?/ unroll something that is rolled up (as a sail); come loose, of something that was previously stuck on; no longer taut (of an anchor rope) MLG /vavatra/ opened, untied (of something like a clasp-hold, or lid-fast or a fast knot) OJ /babad/ a clearing; to clear (a piece of forest) BAL /babad/ to clear forest; clearing, a cleared space " /badbad/ disentangle, open, clear NOTE: Also NGA /bheva/ `loosen, untie; loosened, untied'. {keep anything from orig.?: NOTE: With root */-baj/ `unravel, untie'. MOTU_/papa-ia/ `unroll, open up a ball' may be related. The above NOTE was on the card; I guess the one below was from ae4.acd?: NOTE: With root */-baj/ `disentangle, untie': (a) ISG_/uba_d/ `untie, unbind, let loose', AKL_/hu'bad/ `unravel, untie, unwind'; (b) BURU_/hafa-h/ `undo, take off'; (c) BURU_/hufa-h/ `undo, untie, take off'; (d) DPB_/kimba9/ `open a book, open a letter'; (e) BURU_/lafa-h/ `remove (a covering), open (a book)'; (f) BURU_/lufa-h/ `take off, slip off (clothing); loosen; release'. MOTU_/papia/ `unroll, open up a ball' may be related.} #clap, #smack (2) */bak/\1 clap! smack! WMP: TBL /bak/ bark of a dog NgD /bak/ splash! MAL /bak/ sound of a smack KB /bak/ sound of clapping, of horses' hooves, etc. DPB /bak/ sound of a large object falling on a wooden floor CMP: NGA /ba/ smack, clap with the hand (8) */mpak/ OC: ARS /baa/ strike one upon another, as firewood in breaking it TON /pa_/ touch; hit; knock against; collide with; slap (esp. on the head) NOTE: The OC forms cited here may reflect PMP_*/pak/. #negative (2) */bak/\2 negative marker WMP: SIM /ba?/, /fa?/ no, not MENT /ba/ negative (vetative) BAR /ba/ negative SHWNG: BULI /pa/ no, not, nothing, no one NUM /ba/ no, not NOTE: SIM_/ba?/, /fa?/ points to */bak/, but each of the other languages has regularly lost */-k/. As a consequence of the loss of final */k/ reflexes of */bak/ may be confused with reflexes of the conjunction */ba/ `but, or, if, because', which introduce an element of doubt, qualification or occasionally even negation. #conjunction, #despite, #nonetheless (2) */baka/ conjunction: despite, nonetheless WMP: ILK /baka'/ be vague, inconsequent, contradictory CEB /ba'ka/ it doesn't matter, never mind if IBAN /baka/ in spite of OC: RAL /baka/ perhaps (placed at the beginning of a sentence) NOTE: Also KAY_/beka?/ `nevertheless, however'. #bird sp., #kingfisher (3) */bakaka/ a bird, the kingfisher WMP: WBM /bekaka/ kingfisher NgD /bakaka/ predatory fishing bird somewhat smaller than a dove, with green back, yellow breast, red feet and bill and a short tail IBAN /bekaka/ stork-billed kingfisher NOTE: Also TIR_/bekakah/ `kingfisher: %Pellargopsis capensis (Linn.)%', MAL_/bekakak/, /pekakak/ `kingfisher: %Halcyon% sp.'. #tree, #%Nauclea% (2) */ba9kal/ a tree: %Nauclea% sp. WMP: AKL /ba'9kae/ tree with reddish fruit: %Nauclea junghuhnia% CEB /ba9ka'l/ tree sp.: %Nauclea orientalis% IBAN /ba9kal/ small trees, %Nauclea% sp. MAL /ba9kal/ name for certain trees: %Nauclea% spp. or %Sarcocephalus% spp. MAK /ba9kala?/ a timber tree: %Sarcocephalus undulatus% (Cense_1979); a tree: %Nauclea orientalis% (Mills_1975) CMP: MGG /ba9kal/ tree sp. NOTE: Mills_(1975:627) posits ``Proto-Indonesian''_?*/ba9kal/ `tree sp.', but is unable to further specify the referent. This taxon is not mentioned in Verheijen_(1984). #spread, #split (2) */bakaq/ spread apart, split WMP: CEB /ba'ka?/ walk with the legs apart KULAWI (Esser_1964) /baka?/ wounded CMP: PAM */vaka/ split OC: NGG /va9ga/ to split, from the heat of the sun NOTE: With root */-kaq/ `split'. #loose, #untie (2) */ba(9)kas/\1 come loose, untied WMP: BON /ba'kas/ tear, as cloth; break up; pull down; destroy, of anything that has been made MLG /vaha/ loosened, untied, relaxed, as of parcels, burdens, etc. CMP: MGG /bahas/ come apart, come undone KMB /wa9ga/ make an opening, take apart PAU /haka/ to open (intr.) NOTE: With root */-kas/ `loosen, undo, untie'. #swift, #fast, #strong, #energetic (3) */ba(9)kas/\2 swift, strong, energetic, fast dsj. */be9kas/ WMP: AKL /ba'kas/ hurry up, hasten, quicken " /ma-ba'kas/ quick, fast, speedy KAD /vakas/ strong " /mama-vakas/ strengthen, make strong, invigorate MAK /ba9kasa?/ swift, agile, energetic OC: MOTA /vaka/ to have strength, energy NOTE: With root */-kas/ `swift, agile; strong, energetic'. #wave, #weather (3) */bakat/ waves, heavy weather at sea WMP: MAR /bakat/ waves, windy weather, gusty wind IBAN /bakat/ choppy (of water), small waves made by wind and tide in shallow water SIM /bakad/ wave, billow JAV /bakat/ mighty, terrific, powerful #basket (3) */ba(9)kat/ type of basket WMP: AKL /ba9kat/ woven basket (for small fishes) CEB /bakat/ kind of hamper, woven container about two feet high with a top IBAN /ba9kat/ large basket #spear (3) */ba9kaw/ barbless spear WMP: AKL /ba'9kaw/ spear MAR /ba9kao/ spear or lance WBM /ba9kew/ generic for any barbless spear IBAN /ba9kau/ pike, short round spike on a staff; /ba9kau/ also applies to the long bayonets of the early 19th century fixed to ironwood staves for arming Fortmen (Richards) NOTE: Also BON_/ba9gaw/ `kind of spear having a plain blade without barbs'. Cf. Zorc_(n.d.) PPH_*/baNkaw/ `spear, lance'. #peel, #bark (n.) (2) */bakbak/\1 peel off, of skin; to remove the bark of a tree WMP: ILK /bakba'k/ crustless, scabless ITW /ba'bak/ that which peels off (skin, paint, etc.) KAP /bakba'k/ scar, scab, peeling skin TAG /bakba'k/ detached, decorticated; remove the bark or thick skin (of something) BKL /bakba'k/ a large scab, ready to fall off; to peel (as sunburned skin) HAN /bakba'k/ chipping off, breaking off AKL /ba'kbak/ take off the bark of a tree KEL /bebHak/ torn, as a shirt IBAN /babak/ take off, pull down, undo, tear away, pull out, pull up by the roots KB /bakbak/ remove the rind (of fruits) TB /bakbak/ loosen, undo; detach, as the bark of a tree REJ /baba?/ skin SDN /babak/ raw; open or abraded skin (as on the back of a horse, from harness-wear) OJ /babak/ split open, laying bare, raw (wound), torn off JAV /babak/ skinned, bruised MAD /babba?/ bark of a tree BAL /babak/ scrape, graze (the skin), blister (from walking or working); peel off (skin) SAS /babak/ bark of a tree; scraped, flayed (skin) CHM /pappa/ strip off (bark of a tree), skin (an animal), peel off, rip off (as skin, bark) CMP: NGA /bhabha/ peel off, remove the bark (8) */mpampak/ OC: RAL /papak/ to peel off bark -- also applied to peeling off lime, paint, etc. NGG /papa/ to chip, chips ARS /baba/ break one thing on another, chip a stone ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) */bakbak-an/ {??} WMP: TAG /bakbak-a'n/ remove the bark or thick skin of something BKL /bakbak-a'n/ peel something off JAV /babak-an/ piece of skin, shaving, peeling BAL /babak-an/ bark of a tree NOTE: This item appears to have referred prototypically to the peeling off of skin (intransitive) or to the removal of the bark of a tree (transitive). The removal of skin (transitive) probably was represented by */kulit-i/, a form which apparently could be applied as well to the removal of tree bark. Evidently, then, the transitive meaning of */bakbak/ was largely coextensive with the meaning of */kulit-i/ as it applied to tree bark rather than to the skin of animals. The occasional nominal referents (REJ_/baba?/ `skin', MAD_/babba?/ `bark of a tree') seem to be secondary, and the meaning of the suffixed form (*/bakbak-an/) remains unclear. #clap, #pound, #smack, #sound (1) */bakbak/\2 sound of heavy clapping or pounding, smacking sound dbl. */bekbek/, */bukbuk/ F: PAI /b-al_-akbak/ drumming sound, as of many stones falling or tumbling, horse's hooves, drumming on table with hands {card has /bakbak/ for PAI} WMP: ISG /ba'ba?/ beat, hammer, smash, crush; pound the first rice of the new harvest BON /bakbak/ frog IFG /bakba'k/ wooden slab with a handle with which women beat the clothes they are washing; frog {`frog' not on card for IFG?} KAN /bakba'k/ frog HAN /bakba'k/ chipping off, breaking off DGT /bakbak/ frog PGS /bakba'k/ to whip CEB /bakba'k/ frog, toad (onom.) MAR /babak/ frog; hammer WBM /bakbak/ frog TIR /bakbak/ a hammer; to hammer, pound KAD /babak/ smash, crush, bread to pieces BGG /babak/ beat a drum TAE' /ba?bak/ spread the wings MAK /ba?ba?/ click the lips to make a horse stand still CHM /pappa/ wing CMP: SIKA /wawak/ loud sound or noise SHWNG: WAR /wawa/ knock on side of canoe; make a clamor (8) */mpampa/ {??} OC: ARS /baba/ break one thing on another, chip a stone FIJ /baba/ strike, smite the head with open hand MAO /pak-i/, /papak-i/ slap, pat; make a clapping noise NOTE: With root */-bak/ `sound of a heavy smack'. The varied meanings brought together here are united by a common onomatopoetic reference to a loud smacking sound or to an animal or instrument that produces such a sound. The meaning `frog' appears to be a Philippine innovation (cf. Reid_1972:85) for several other, unrelated onomatopoetic forms for `frog' in the Philippines). NGA_/vava/ `cry of the raven' probably is an independent onomatopoetic formation, and EDDY_/baba/ `wing' apparently does not belong here, as we would expect the final consonant to be preserved (with a supporting vowel). For the appropriateness of including CHM_/pappa/ `wing' in this set cf. the semantic parallels with reflexes of */pakpak/. #fish #corral (3) */bakelad/ fish corral dsj. */belat/ WMP: TAG /bakla'd/ GLOSS IBAN /belat/ cane fishing screen or net (with canes horizontal) usually set across stream or current MAL /belat/ screen made of rattan strips tied to one another longitudinally; screen-trap for fish. In most of these traps the fish are led by the tide between two converging rows of screens (/bida9 belat/, /bidai belat/) into a trap, usually of several compartments, from the inmost of which there is no escape SAS /belat/ fish corral made in the sea BGS /bele?/ screen-trap for fish NOTE: For the phonological history of this and similar trisyllables in Malay and some other languages of western Indonesia see Blust (1982 -- `An overlooked feature of Malay historical phonology'). #belt, #tie, #around (1) */bakes/ belt; tie around the waist F: AMIS /fakec/ put a belt on " /sa-fakec/ a belt WMP: ILK /barke's/ an inflammatory disease of the skin, often originating at the waist; to tie into one bundle ISG /baxa'kat/ belt, girdle, sash (worn around the waist by women to keep the /tapis/ in place) PGS /balke's/ belt CEB /baku's/ belt; wear a belt, tie around the waist WBM /bagkes/ tie up something inanimate " /bakes/ belt SGH /bokes/ belt MLG /vahy/ generic for plants used as withes, girdles, and in plaiting, rope-making, etc. CMP: KMB /wa9gihu/ twist, wind around; belt; rope that is tied around the loincloth SAVU /wake/ tie around the waist; belt NOTE: With root */-kes/ `encircle, wrap firmly around'. Reflexes of preconsonantal */R/ in Philippine forms are assumed to be secondary. #tree (3) */ba9kiri9/ tree sp. WMP: AKL /ba9kili'9/ a tree: %Cicca acida% CEB /ba9kili'9/ kind of small, deciduous, cultivated tree which has a rounded, light green fruit, fleshy and sour, used as a flavoring for vinegarized dishes or eaten pickled: %Cicca acida% MAL /be9kiri9/ a tree: %Garcinia% sp. #fish sp., #sea-#bream (3) */bakuku/ fish sp. (presumably sea-bream) dbl. */bakuku9/ WMP: CEB /baku'ku/ fish sp. MLG (Prov.) /vaho'ho/ fish sp. MAL /bekuku/ sea bream: %Sparus hasta% #fish sp., #sea-#bream, #%Sparus hasta% (3) */bakuku9/ a fish, the sea-bream: %Sparus hasta% dbl. */bakuku/ WMP: MAL /bekuko9/ the sea-bream: %Sparus hasta% MAK /bakuku9/ large edible sea fish with a tough skin: %Sparus hasta% #fish sp. (3) */ba9kulis/ fish sp. WMP: CEB /ba9kuli's-an/ kind of fish MAK /ba9kulisi?/ scaleless, striped marine fish about half a meter long, with forked tail fin NOTE: For another fish name to which Cebuano has added the suffix /-an/, cp. PMP_*/taRutu9/ > CEB_/tagutu9-an/ `porcupine fish: %Diodon% sp.'. #curve, #bend (2) */ba(9)kuq/ curved, bent WMP: CEB /ba'ku?/ stoop-shouldered; become hunched LgW /bako?/ bend, curve BAR /wa9ku/ bent over, inclined, of someone who does not walk erect; leaning over, as a house or tree CMP: KMB /baku/ bent, curved NOTE: With root */-kuq/ `bend, curve'. #adze, #shape #wood (3) */bala/\1 to adze, shape wood with an adze WMP: ITB /vala/ chips produced in lumbering, small chips cut off from wood by axe TIR /bala/ to shape roughly, as wood, prior to smooth or detail finishing TAE' /bala/ work wood with an adze NOTE: IBAN_/bala-n/ `make smooth with an adze' may reflect */bala-en/. #pen, #enclose (2) */bala/\2, */bara/, */baRa/ pen, enclosure for domesticated animals WMP: NgD /ba-bara/ pig pen MLG /vala/ the wooden fence of a cattle pen TB /bara/ place under the house where domesticated animals are kept at night; pen, stable, corral SAS /bara/ pen, stable GOR /bala/ fence UMA /wala/ fence, enclosure BAR /waya/ fence, enclosure TAE' /bala/ fence, enclosure MDR /bala/ fenced enclosure for animals MAK /bara/ fenced enclosure, animal pen SHWNG: S-L /fara/ fence, palisade (8) */mpala/, */mpara/, */mpaRa/ fence; animal pen; fortification OC: MUS /bala-bala/ fence ROV /bara/ fence or wall, a fenced pen " /bara-boko/ pig fence EDDY /bara/ place of refuge, fort CH /bara/ fence, barrier " /bara-bosu/ pigpen NGG /mbara/ lower logs on a fence; loosely, a fence LAU /bara/ fence; enclosure, hedge AA /para/ fence, trap " /para ni keni/ an enclosure of girls, virgins, taboo for men SA'A /para/ to fence with upright posts, to guard ARS /bara/ hedge; fence made of wood " /bara-bara/ a fence around a grave ROT /pa_/ wall, fence, enclosure FIJ /ba_/ fish fence TON /pa_/ fence, wall, enclosure SAM /pa_/ fence, wall, hedge NAN /pa_/ fence; fenced enclosure (for chickens, pigs); fish trap MAO /pa_/ stockade, fortified place; weir for catching eels, etc.; screen, blockade HWN /pa_/ fence, wall, corral, pen, sty, enclosure NOTE: Also MOTU_/ara/ `fence of upright sticks'. Dempwolff reconstructed */ba[rR]a/ `pen, enclosure for animals', but cited evidence only from Ngaju Dayak and Toba Batak of western Indonesia. The data brought together here present a more complex picture in that reflexes of Dempwolff's */(rR)/ point unambiguously to */l/ (Uma, Bare'e, Tae' and Mandar), */r/ (Ngaju Dayak, Nggela, Lau, Sa'a) or */R/ (Rotuman, Fijian, Polynesian) in different collections of languages. Since other reflexes are ambiguous for */r/, */R/ (Toba Batak, Sasak, Roviana, Eddystone, Cheke Holo) or */l/, */r/, */R/ (Gorontalo, Mussau, 'Are'are, Arosi), all three variants must be posited as disjuncts. #whatever, #whichever (2) */bala/\3, */bara/ whatever, whichever WMP: TAG /bala/ whatever, whichever, whoever OJ /wala/ in compounds it seems to be ``all kinds of, in every respect'' " /bara-bara/ all sorts of things CMP: ERAI /h(a)la/ what, something OC: LABEL /hal/ a, some, somewhat #rat, #mouse (2) */balabaw/ rat, mouse dbl. */labaw/ WMP: SUB(Sc) /bolabow/ rat LgA /belabaw/ rat KATINGAN /balawau/ rat MIRI /balabuh/ rat, mouse MUK /belabaw/ rat, mouse SAN /balawo/ rat, mouse TAE' /balao/ rat, mouse MDR /balao/ rat, mouse MAK /balao/ rat, mouse PSS */bala(b)o/ rat, mouse PAL /bea'b/ rodent; rat, mouse CMP: MGG /belawo/ rat, mouse NOTE: MLG_/voalavo/ `a species of rat: %Mus alexandrinus%' may be a product of folk etymology (< */buaq/ `fruit'?). #spear, #harpoon (3) */balabeg/ spear, harpoon WMP: ILK /bala'bag/ harpoon with a single barb; spear, cane, etc. ISG /bala'bag/ a very long spear whose head is removable and has two barbs IFG /balabo'g/ kind of spear, the blade of which is provided with two barbs MAL /belebak/ (< M) bamboo spear (used in spring traps) NOTE: MAL_/belebak/ is assumed to show metathesis of the penultimate and final vowels prior to the change of last-syllable */e/ to /a/. #blurred, #vision (2) */balabuR/ blurred, of vision WMP: JAV /blawur/ blurred, not clearly visible CMP: TET /balabu/ see dimly SOB /balafu/ dim vision (due to old age) #dagger (3) */baladaw/ dagger WMP: ISG /balada'w/ a hatchet TAG /balara'w/ dirk, dagger CEB /balara'w/ kind of dagger MAR /baladao/ ancient and primitive machete NgD /baladau/ small double-edged dagger MAL /beladau/ a curved single-edged dagger worn hidden in the sleeve or waistbelt and used for treacherous stabbing GOR /baladu/ double-edged knife (used as personal weapon) BAR /balado/ short, pointed, double-edged dagger #hips (3) */balaka9/ hips WMP: KAP /balaka'9/ hips TAG /balaka'9/ hips MLG /valahana/ loins IBAN /belaka9/ back, rear, behind, after MAL /belaka9/ back; rear; hind-portion; behind or after OJ /balaka9/, /walaka9/ back MAD /balaka9/ back NOTE: The meaning of this item is not entirely clear. However, */likud/ appears to have meant `back', and no other reconstructed form is known for the meaning `hips', hence the semantic inferences. #fish sp. (3) */balaki/ edible marine fish WMP: ILK /bala'ki/ kind of middle-sized white marine fish; it is provided with barbels and its meat is esteemed WOL /balaki/ kind of edible fish, the tunny: %Thynnus tunnina% NOTE: MAO_/paraki/ `a freshwater fish, the smelt: %Retropinna retropinna%' shows regular correspondences with the Ilokano and Wolio forms, but probably is a chance resemblance. #bird sp., #woodpecker (1) */balalaCuk/ a bird: the woodpecker F: SAI (Taai) /baLasok/ woodpecker PAI /balatsuk/ Formosan barbet: %Megalaema oorti muchalis% WMP: BKL /ambala'tok/ woodpecker CEB /balala'tuk/ kind of woodpecker MAR /balalatok/ woodpecker WBM /tem-belelatuk/ a woodpecker NgD /balatok/ woodpecker IBAN /belatok/ woodpecker MAL /belatok/ woodpecker OJ /walatuk/ woodpecker BAL /belatuk/ sp. of woodpecker NOTE: Also OJ_/palatuk/ `woodpecker'. All trisyllabic reflexes are assumed to show the effects of haplology. Alternatively, the Formosan and western Indonesian forms might be taken to support */balaCuk/, and the additional syllable in the Philippine forms attributed to a still unjustified affix */-al-/. Despite the problem of justifying an analysis */b-al-alaCuk/, this solution would offer some advantages, since the alternative chosen here creates a canonically anomalous quadrisyllable. It is possible that */balalaCuk/ contains a */bala-/ variant of the */qali-/, */kali-/ prefix. Whatever the history of the first two syllables, it seems clear that the last syllable of this item is the root */-Cuk/ `knock, pound, beat'. #grasshopper, #locust (3) */balala9/\1 grasshopper, locust WMP: KAP /ba'la9/ kind of insect said to be destructive to coconut trees TAG /ba'la9/ (*/-9/ > {zero} unexpl.) locust MLG /vala'la/ locust, grasshopper MAL /belala9/ grasshopper; cricket; mantis DPB /bala9/, /bale9/ (*/a/ > /e/ unexpl.) grasshopper SND /wala9/ grasshopper OJ /wala9/ cricket, grasshopper, locust JAV /wala9/ locust, grasshopper, or similar insect with jointed legs BAL /bala9/ grasshopper, locust SAS /bala9/ grasshopper NOTE: Also MAL_/bilala9/ and OJ_/wilala/, /wilalan/ `grasshopper'. The reflexes of */balala9/ are assumed to show haplology in all witnesses except Malagasy and Malay. #bird sp., #sandpiper, #snipe (3a) */balala9/\2 bird sp.: sandpiper or snipe WMP: DGT /balala'9/ a bird: the sandpiper SAN /balala9/ a bird: the snipe NOTE: Also SAN_/barala9/ `snipe'. #tree (3) */balalanti?/ tree sp. WMP: ISG /balansi'/ common tree whose leaves are used for the wrappers of cigars and whose timber is used for the shafts of spears HAN /bala'nti?/ tree sp.: %Kleinhovia hospita L.% CEB /balala'nti?/ small tree, the leaves of which have a medicinal use; the wood is of magical importance, esp. in sorcery NgD /balanti/ rather thick tree with white bark and hard and durable timber NOTE: Also IBAN_/belati/ (expected **/belati?/) `tree sp.: %Brownlowia cuspidata Pierre%', MAL_/meranti/ `tree name, mostly %Shorea% spp.', KB_/beranti/ `various trees, including %Shorea leprosula%, which yields a useful resin', SIM_/barati/ `jambu tree and fruit'. The Isneg, Hanuno'o, and Ngaju Dayak reflexes are assumed to show haplology. This item may have contained a */bala-/ variant of the */qali-/, */kali-/ prefix. #scratch, #wale (2) */balan/, */balar/ scratch or wale on the skin WMP: MAL /balan/ wheal " /harimau balan daun/ the marbled cat: %Felis marmorata% " /cakar balar/ scratches and scars all over a body BAL /balan/ weal raised by a blow with a thin stick or lash SAS /balar/ weal CMP: MGG /balar/ long (of scratch or scar) NGA /bala/ stripe, streak, wale on skin #fish sp., #mullet (3) */balanak/ a sea fish: the mullet WMP: ILK /bala'nak/ fish sp. TAG /ba'nak/ adult large-sealed mullet fish, known as /agwa's/ when still spawning and /talilo9/ when still immature: %Mugil waigensis% BKL /bala'nak/ fish sp. found in rivers HAN /bala'nak/ medium-sized white fish AKL /baea'nak/ fish sp. CEB /bala'nak/ generic for large mullets: %Mugilidae% MAR /balanak/ large mullet TIR /belanak/ a mullet: %Mugil% spp. NgD /balanak/ a sea fish IBAN /belanak/ grey mullet: %Mugil% spp. MAL /belanak/ grey mullet: %Mugil% spp. SIM /balana?/ a river fish, family %Mugilidae% SDN /balanak/ a fish that stays in river mouths OJ /balanak/ a sea fish, the grey mullet MAD /balana?/ mullet MDR /balana?/ mullet BGS /balana?/ mullet MAK /balana?/ a sea fish, the mullet NOTE: Different growth stages of the mullet probably were terminologically distinguished in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (cf. PMP_*/qaRuas/ `young growth stage of mullet'). In addition, the adult forms of different species may have been distinguished in Proto-Western Malayo-Polynesian (cf. PMP, PWMP_*/kanasay/ `mullet'). TAG_/ba'nak/ is assumed to be a contraction of earlier */bahanak/, with rare but recurrent */l/ > //h// and accommodation to a disyllabic canonical target (Blust_1976). #scar (2) */bala9/\1 scar WMP: MENT /balak/ scar, cicatrix CMP: MGG /bala9/ scar, former wound #side, #part (4) */bala9/\2 side, part CMP: SIKA /wala9/ side, part OC: TIGAK /pal/ part NGG /pala/ side, part TON(NG) /pala/ side, edge NOTE: Also KMB_/mbara/ `direction, side, course', SAVU_/bara/ `side, wind direction', AA_/paro/ `beyond, on the side', MOTA_/para/ `sideways, turning aside', all of which are probably unrelated to the above set and, except for KMB_/mbara/ and SAVU_/bara/, to one another. #spotted, #striped, #multi-colored (3) */bala9/\3 spotted, striped, multi-colored dbl. */bale9/, */bela9/ WMP: KEL /bala9/ tiger BM /bala9/ spotted, striped, multi-coloured, mottled BAR /waya/ multi-colored NOTE: With root */-la9/ `striped'. #pan, #pot, #earthenware (2) */bala9a/ shallow earthenware cooking pot or pan WMP: KAP /bala9a'?/ clay pot, used to cook viands TAG /bala9a'?/ wide-mouthed earthen cooking pot NgD /bala9a/ sacred jar MLG /vilany/ (expected **/valany/) cooking vessel, pot, pan IBAN /bela9a?/ wide-mouthed earthenware cooking pot MAL /bela9a/ wide-mouthed cooking pot for cooking vegetables, curries, etc. -- not for boiling rice KB /bela9a/ shallow iron pan in which one cooks sugar, fries meat, etc. TB /bala9a/ iron pan MAK /bala9a/ earthen rice pot with small opening WOL /bala9a/ earthen cooking pot (8) */pala9a/ {??} OC: GED /pala9/ potsherd, used to render fat and to cook oil; frying pan, shallow roaster NOTE: Also PAI_/vala9a/, PUY(T)_/va9ara/ (< M?) `mortar'. Dempwolff reconstructed */ba9a/, */b-al-a9a/ `vessel, receptacle', basing the shorter form entirely on the comparison of TAG_/ba9a'?/ `low earthen water jar' with trisyllables in the other languages examined. Even if we exclude TAG_/ba9a'?/ from our proposed cognate set, however, this remains a troublesome comparison. The Kapampangan and Tagalog forms appear to be Malay loans (marked by secondary final glottal stop), and the Makasarese and Wolio words may also be borrowed. GED_/pala9/, on the other hand, shows an exact agreement with KB_/bela9a/, TB_/bala9a/, and could hardly be a loan. SIR_/va9ara/, PAI_/vala9a/ `mortar' and BULI_/pala9a/ (expected **/pala9/) `kind of old pot in which one puts tree roots that are boiled to make a medicine' are treated as chance resemblances. #inattentive (3) */bala9a(q)/ inattentive WMP: AKL /baea'9a/ loss of attention, distraction MAL /bela9ah/ to gape SDN /bala9ah/ careless, inattentive NOTE: With root */-9a(q)/ `gape, open the mouth wide'. This item may be a covergent innovation. #split, #divide (3) */balaq/ split, divide WMP: ISG /bala'?/ easy to cleave (said of wood) MAR /bala?/ opponent; oppose MALOH /bala?/ cut, split MAL /balah/ dispute, argue MIN /balah/ split, divide BAR /baya/ shallow indentation or other division of a terrain; groove between the two halves of the back, breasts, buttocks " /bala/ split, in pieces NOTE: With root */-laq/ `split'. #co-#parent-#in-law (3a) */balaqih/ co-parent-in-law, the relationship between parents of spouses WMP: KAP /bala'i/ father of a married child as he stands related to the father of his child's spouse TAG /bala'e/ a parent of one's son- or daughter-in-law BKL /bala'yi/ in-laws HAN /bala'yi/ the reciprocal relationship between parents of mates, as the relationship between a man's parents and the parents of his wife BTK /ba'lay/ grandparent-in-law (sex undifferentiated) AKL /baea'yi(h)/ the relationship of the parents of each wedded couple; co-parents-in-law MAR /bala?i/ in-laws; marriage vows WBM /bela?i/ any relative of one's son-in-law or daughter-in-law TIR /bela?i/ (probably a Maranao loan) parent-in-law #pale; #albino (2) */balar/ pale; albino WMP: MAL /balar/ unnatural or albino whiteness, esp. in a buffalo OC: SA'A /pala/, /palapala/ light in color (coconuts, people, animals) ARS /bara/ pale in color, as a yellowish variety of coconut; pale from fear or illness, of men #pale, #white (2) */balaR/ pale, unnaturally white WMP: MAL /balar/ unnatural or albino whiteness, esp. in a buffalo CMP: SAVU /wara/ white, bleached white (8) */mpalaR/ {??} OC: LAU /bala/ white from scars (face, body) AA /para-para/ white, pale SA'A /pala/ light in color (coconuts, people, animals); cataract in eye; pale; faded " /pala-pala/ grey, whitish ARS /bara/ pale in color (as a yellowish coconut); pale from fear or illness, of men MAO /para/ turned yellow, sere, discolored NOTE: With root */-laR/ `whitened'. MGG_/walak/ `extremely white (cotton)' NGA_/bhara/ `white, whitish, gray', SIKA_/bala/ `ivory, elephant tusk', KMB_/bara/ `white' and LETI_/warsa/ `white (as a horse)' exhibit phonetic and semantic similarities to the forms cited here, but cannot be reconciled with them under any known correspondence formula. #crosswise, #athwart (3a) */bala(R)baR/ crosswise, athwart WMP: BON /bala'bag/ lie crosswise, as a person lying across the narrow part of a sleeping mat; be in a horizontal position, of something that should be vertical KAN /balaba'g/ to lay, etc. askew, obliquely, across, awry IFG /bala'bag/ horizontal position of a wooden stick, a cane, a shelf of canes, a spear including its shaft, etc. DGT /balagba'g/ be crosswise, as to carry something sideways on your back, for the wind to be against the side of a boat, or for game to stand sideways to the hunter TAG /balagba'g/ crossbeam; placed or lying crosswise BKL /balagba'g/ crosswise HAN /balagba'g/ parallel zigzag lines usually running across, i.e., horizontally, a decorated object AKL /baea'bag/ blocking, obstructing, put across, stretching over; thwart, hindrance, obstruction CEB /bala'bag/ lie across a path; block someone's way, for a fetus to be in a transverse position MAR /balabag/ hindrance, encumbrance WBM /belavag/ crosswise; lay something crosswise TIR /berawar/ lay something across something else or between two points NOTE: Although the proposed cognation almost certainly is valid, this comparison is problematic in two respects. First, the Bontok, Kankanay and Ifugaw reflexes suggest */g/, not */R/ for the final consonant. The Tiruray reflex instead indicated */R/, while all other reflexes are ambiguous. Since */R/ is known to be reflected sporadically as //g// in some languages, but */g/ is not known to be reflected as //r// I adopt */R/ in the reconstruction. Second, the Dumagat, Tagalog, Bikol, and Hanuno'o reflexes point to */balaRbaR/, which raises the possibility of an infixed reduplication */b-al-aRbaR/. The Bontok, Kankanay, Ifugaw, Aklanon, and Cebuano reflexes, on the other hand, indicate */balabaR/. #vine (3) */balaRen/ vine WMP: AKL /baea'gon/ vine (generic term) CEB /bala'gun/ vine; grow like a vine MSK /baragun/ vine SUB /balagon/ vine WBM /belag_en/ rattan (generic) MAR /balagen/ rattan PM */balahan/ cucumber BAR /wayaa/ creeper, vine, liana, rope, cord NOTE: Also TIR_/berogon/ `a wild vine: %Merremia peltata%', BAR_/balara/ `rope made of strong liana', TAE'_/balaan/ `vine that is used as a rope'. If cognate with the Philippine forms both PM_*/balahan/ and BAR_/wayaa/ show assimilation of the last vowel. This item may be a loanword which has spread into Sulawesi from the north. #banana (3) */balat/ kind of banana WMP: BON /ba'lat/ banana plant: %Musa% sp. TANJONG /balat/ banana KAJAMAN /balat/ banana NOTE: Also BIN, MATU, NIBONG, UKIT_/balak/, LARA_/barak/, SGH_/borak/ `banana'. Since PMP_*/punti/ persisted as the generic term for `banana' in PWMP_*/balat/ presumably represented a species or variety. #marine, #invertebrate, #sea cucumber (3a) */bala't/ edible marine invertebrate - probably sea cucumber WMP: ILK /bala't/ kind of blackish, edible worm, resembling a leech; it is found in brackish pools along the seashore BKL /ba'lat/ shellfish which breeds along the beaches HAN /bala't/ edible black squid, but not greatly valued as a source of food AKL /baea't/ edible green or black eel found at seashore CEB /bala't/ sea cucumber #spring, #flip, #spear #trap; #constellation, #Orion (3) */bala(n)tik/ spring back suddenly; spring-set spear trap; the constellation Orion WMP: ILK /balanti'k/ flipping, flicking with the tip of a stick; being hit by a twig that crosses the path in a forest HAN /bala'tik/ horizontal spring spear pig trap, usually equipped with a long, tapering bamboo point AKL /baea'tik/ booby trap, improvised trap, (to catch by surprise) CEB /bala'tik/ trap consisting of a trip rope which releases a spear WBM /belatik/ bamboo spear trap; the constellation Orion TBL /belatik/ spring-spear trap for wild pigs KAY /belatik/ to flip; to spring back straight, as a bent sapling suddenly springing straight; a pig trap using a spear propelled by a bent sapling IBAN /belatik/ trap consisting of a low frame from which a spear is hurled when the trap is sprung MAL /belante'k/ spring-gun, spring-spear, spring-trap " /binta9 belante'k/ Orion BAL /belantik/ tiger-trap SAN /balati?/ spring-set spear trap for pigs TAE' /ba?tik/ flicking movement of the tongue in speaking; resilient rebound of an object that has been bent down (under tension) when it is released NOTE: With root */-tik/ `spring up; flicking motion'. The meaning `Orion' in Western Bukidnon Manobo and Malay may point to a distinct morpheme, but if parallels between different language families are any indication it is likely that all forms cited here belong to a single cognate set. #ladder (3) */balatuk/ kind of ladder WMP: TB /balatuk/ ladder BAR /wayatu/ bamboo or long pole in which the stumps of the branches remain, used as a ladder in climbing trees NOTE: SAN_/tem-balatu9/, BAR_/balatu/ `steps of a ladder' suggest that this comparison may be a product of chance. #mung #bean, #%Phaseolus% (3a) */balatu9/ the mung bean: %Phaseolus% spp. WMP: ILK /bala'to9/ green gram, mungo: %Phaseolus radiatus% ISG /bala'to9/ the green gram or mungo: %Phaseolus radiatus% BON /bala'to9/ kind of small, black bean: %Vigna% sp. IFG /bala'to9/ kind of bush producing small, black beans: %Phaseolus radiatus L.% PGS /balato'9/ mung beans KAP /bala'to9/ mongo bean TAG /bala'to9/ mung or mongo bean, green gram bean: %Phaseolus aureus Roxb.% BKL /bala'to9/ long beans HAN /bala'tu9/ mungo bean: %Phaseolus aureus Roxb.% CEB /bala'tu9/ kind of string bean, reaching more than a foot and less than an inch around: %Vigna sesquipedialis% WBM /belatu9/ mungo bean: %Phaseolus aureus% KAD /bahatu9/ bean NOTE: The last syllable vowel in Ilokano, Isneg, Ifugaw, Kapampangan, and Bikol suggests borrowing from Tagalog, where lowering of */u/ is regular, KAD_/bahatu9/ (expected **/vohutu9/) also appears to be a loan. This item thus may be a central-southern Philippine innovation which acquired a wider distinction through borrowing. BAL_/belatu9/ `cactus', BAR_/wayatu/, MAK_/balatun/ `the rambutan tree and fruit: %Nephelium% sp.' are assumed to be unrelated. #negative (3a) */bala'w/\1 negative marker WMP: KAN /bala'w/ contradict, gainsay HAN /bala'w/ no, not; an emphatic negative similar to /bukun/, but not so strong, and less frequently used in conversation ... it is common in certain set phrases #shrimp (3a) */balaw/\2 small shrimp sp. WMP: ILK /balaw-ba'law/ fresh-water shrimp or prawn, not much larger than the head of a pin BKL /bala'w/ small shrimp #tree, #%Dipterocarpus%, #resin (3) */balaw/\3 a tree, probably %Dipterocarpus% spp.; resinous substance obtained from this tree WMP: IKL /ba'law/ a tree: %Dipterocarpus% spp. CEB /bala'w/ a tree: light species of %Dipterocarpus% (source of timber and resin); resinous preparation used to caulk and waterproof a boat, obtained from the sap of the %Dipterocarpus% and %Agathis philippinensis% MAL /balau/ name for trees yielding a particular class of timber used in wharf and bridge building: %Shorea%, %Swintonia%, and %Parinarium% spp. " /em-balau/ gum-lac; shellac; also solder, sealing wax and the material used for fixing the haft of a blade in the handle. Local /embalau/ is a gummy substance deposited by the female %Coccus lacca% on the twigs of certain trees, but the best /embalau/ is imported and its exact nature is not known NOTE: MUK_/balaw/, KAY_/balau/ `the cultivated sago palm', SAN_/balau/ `tree of the primary forest which has a bluish-gray, nut-like, egg-shaped fruit' may also be related, though differing in meaning. #public #building, #community #house, #guest house (2) */balay/ public building, community house, guest house WMP: ILK /bala'y/ house, dwelling, residence TAG /ba'hay/ house BKL /bala'y/ house, hut HAN /bala'y/ house, building; shell of a mollusk BTK /bala'y/ house, dwelling CEB /bala'y/ house, home MAR /walai/ house, building, case NgD /balai/ large, open building, either entirely without walls or with 2-3 foot high walls. In Pulopetak these are built only when one holds a death feast. Further inland every village has its /balai/, where games are played, where community gatherings and the discussion of legal matters take place, and where visitors find lodging SGH /bori/ small house in farm MAL /balai/ public building, in contrast to a private house BAL /bale/ a platform, raised on pillars, with a thatched roof and walls on one or two sides; most houses have more than one of these in the complex, and the life of the family is lived on them ... there are /bales/ also in temples and in public places in buildings SAS /bale/ house PS */balay/ house PM */bale/ house PAL /bai/ village meeting-house; guest-house; community house (8) */pale/ canoe shed, storehouse OC: MUS /ale/ house RAL /pal/ house, building TANGA /pal/ small house or shed; canoe shed; storehouse for ritual gifts of food LABEL /pal/ house, men's house NGG /vale/ house KWAIO /fale/ hut for childbirth (very taboo for men) AA /hare/ house of retirement for women during menstruation and after childbirth SA'A /hale/ yam shed outside a garden; any shed ARS /hare/ shed for yams (E. dialect); house with one side of roof only, made in gardens (W. dialect); shrine, small house on poles " /hare-hare/ sheath for knife BAURO /hare/ canoe house, men's house " /ha-hare/ shed TRK /fa'a'n/ building, dwelling house, meeting house WOLEAI /fal/ men's house, clubhouse SONSOROL /fare/ boathouse; men's house FIJ /vale/ house SAM /fale/ house MAO /whare/ house HWN /hale/ house NOTE: For an extended discussion of the meaning of this term, cf. Blust_(1987). #banana (3a) */bala'ya9/ banana sp. WMP: ILK /bala'ya9/ a variety of thick-skinned banana with numerous seeds, %Musa% sp. ISG /bala'ya9/ a variety of thick-skinned, yellow, flattish banana, %Musa sapientum L.% KAN /bala'ya9/ a variety of much esteemed, thick-skinned, small yellow banana HAN /bala'ya9/ a variety of plantain (%Musa paradisiaca Linn.%) similar to /sab?a/ except that the fruits are thicker NOTE: BAR_/balaja/ `tree sp. used to make house posts' presumably is distinct. #hit, #beat, beating #stick (1) */balbal/\1 beating stick; to hit, beat (esp. clothes in washing them) dbl. */palpal/ F: KAV /babbal/ hit with the fist WMP: IFG /balba'l/ kind of wooden slab with a handle with which women beat the clothes they are washing DGT /balbal/ spank, hit with a stick AKL /ba'ebae/ to whip, beat TIR /balbal/ a rigid instrument used to strike something; to strike with a /balbal/ KB /balbal/ wooden beating stick with which the flower stalk of the areca palm is beaten so as to promote a flow of liquid from the plant; to beat TB /balbal/ a club, piece of wood, with which one beats something; knock, beat, hit BGS /babba?/ whip MAK /ba?bala?/ stick used to beat; whip CMP: MGG /babal/ whip; to whip YMD /babal/ hit, beat; something with which one hits, beats SOB /baba/ beat (clothes) SEKAR /baban/ hit #dull-witted, #stupid (3) */balbal/\2 dull-witted, stupid WMP: MAR /babal/ dullard, blockhead; stupid IBAN /babal/ ignorant, thoughtless, slow-witted, forgetful, absent-minded BJR /babal/ stupid MIN /babal/ dull-witted NOTE: Given its limited distribution this word may well prove to be a Malay loan in Maranao. However Malay itself has /bebal/, a form which should be borrowed into Maranao with a penultimate shwa. Moreover, neither Banjarese nor Minangkabau (which have merged */e/ and */a/) is a likely source of loans in any Philippine language. For these reasons and because there is independent (and stronger) support for a doublet */belbel/ the PWMP status of this item is defended. #butterfly (3) */bale(m)ba9/ butterfly dbl. */ba9ba9/ {?? etc.} WMP: SUB(Sc) /belemba9/ butterfly MUK /beleba9/ butterfly #border, #boundary (3) */balej/ border, boundary WMP: KB /bale9/ border, partition TB /balok/ furrow which marks the border between two things; border DPB /bale9/ boundary between two rice fields OJ /waler/ boundary, limit, end SAS /baled-an/ border, boundary NOTE: Also, MLG_/vala/ `a border, as in a rice ground'. #spotted, #streaked (3) */bale9/ spotted, streaked dbl. */bala9/, */bela9/ WMP: MAR /bale9/ scar, pockmark, defect TIR /bale9-an/ pockmarked MUK /bale9/, /pe-bale9/ streaked MAL /bala9/ banded (in coloring) #answer, #retaliate, #reciprocate (1) */bales/\1 to answer, retaliate; reciprocate good or evil F: SAR /um-ali-a-val66/ to answer " /m-utu-a-val66/ to echo RUK(Bd) /tua-ba'l6/ to answer PAZ /pa-bar6't/ to answer SAI /u-ba6h/ to revenge PAI /valet/ oppose someone, talk or strike back; do in return; trade places with; return a visit; oppose, take revenge PUY(T) /vares/ avenge, retaliate WMP: ILK /ba'les/ take revenge; vengeance; reward, repay; make requital, remuneration BON /ba'les/ to revenge; to pay back IFG /ballo'(h)/ (with unexplained /-ll-/) conveys the idea of vengeance; take revenge on somebody ITW /ba'lat/ retaliation, revenge; retaliate ISG /ba'lat/ revenge, turn (opportunity in an alternating order) DGT /bale's/ the custom whereby a Negrito works for a lowland person for a few days, and then the lowland person works for the Negrito for the same number of days PGS /bale's/ retribution, vengeance, price (of action, etc.) BKL /balo's/ take revenge on, get even with, retaliate against " /balo's-balo's/ reciprocate " /ma-balo's/ thank you AKL /ba'eos/ revenge, repayment; pay back (a favor), revenge (a crime), get even CEB /ba'lus/ do back to someone what he did to the agent; for something to be done one way and then the opposite way; for a brother and sister to marry people that are also brothers and sisters; avenge; return a favor, repay a moral obligation WBM /bales/ repay, reward; revenge MLG /valy/ the answer to a question or a letter; a reply; a revenge or recompense MAL /balas/ requital, repayment; reply (e.g. to a letter) TB /balos/ repay something to someone, retaliate; answer (a letter) NIAS /bal6/ revenge SND /bales/ retribution, retaliation; retaliate, avenge; to answer OJ /wales/ return, reaction, countermove, repayment, retaliation, revenge JAV /wales/ retribution, revenge; response; reaction; return BAL /bales/ reward, recompense, desserts; to reward, repay, retaliate; respond, reply (to a letter) SAS /bales/ answer; avenge BGS /wale?/ reciprocate, do in return MAK /balasa?/ what is reciprocated; revenge; answer (to a letter or request) CMP: KOM /balah/ to answer, repay KMP /balahu/ retribution, retaliation; compensation; result LETI /walsa/ repay, requite, answer KISAR /walhe/ repay, requite, answer ROMA /wahal/ (< M) answer FOR /valat/ answer, repay, requite SHWNG: BULI /palas/ to pay NOTE: Also NgD_/balaeh/ `repayment, retaliation, revenge; take revenge, pay back' (with unexpl. */-s/ > //h//), SEL_/alas/ `to answer' (expected **/balas/), BULI_/balas/ `answer, take revenge' (expected **/palas/). Dempwolff_(1937:86a) gives */s/ > //h// as a rare sporadic change in Ngaju Dayak; so far as I know in final position it is found only in this form. BULI_/balas/ appears to be a loan from Malay. As noted elsewhere, there is a pervasive similarity between the glosses of */bales/ and certain aspects of the glosses of */baliw/\2 and */balik/. Only rarely does this semantic overlap create serious doubt as to which etymon a form is to be attributed. #complete, #perfect (2) */bales/\2 to complete, perfect something WMP: MAR /bales/ tighten; complete an operation TIR /bales/ to finish in detail, to smooth finish, as of wood CMP: MGG /bales/ better (8) */palos/ {??} OC: MOTU /halo-a/ to perfect, complete (of work badly done and returned to worker) #become, #happen (3) */bali/\1 become, happen WMP: TIR /waley/ becoming UMA /wali/ become " /me-wali/ become, change BAR /wali/ happen, occur NOTE: Charles (in Zorc_1971) proposed PPH_*/baliq/ `may, can, be allowed; happen; become'. However I am unable to find any Philippine language which supports this etymon apart from BM_/bali?/ `can, may, happen, become; be born'. The reflexes of */bali/ in both Uma and Bare'e (neither of which is a Philippine language) \can be reconciled with */baliq/, but TIR_/waley/ cannot. We might thus reconstruct PWMP_*/baliq/, but all supporting evidence for such a reconstruction would come from languages spoken in Sulawasi in fairly close geographical proximity. To complicate matters, a number of Philippine languages reflect a similar form with reflexes of final */n/ or */9/: ISG_/bali'n/ `can, may, be able, be possible, allowed, permitted; finished; to end by becoming (something)', ITW_/bali'n/ `finish, become', ILK_/bali'n/ `can, may, be able, allowed, be possible; become; change, alter, convert, transform', TBW_/bali9/ `become, happen, succeed, go through'. These forms may be morphologically related to BM_/bali?/, TIR_/waley/, UMA, BAR_/wali/, but if so it is unclear how. On the other hand the Tiruray, Uma and Bare'e forms could all reflect */baliw/\1 in the sense of `change, transform'. However, none of the other items mentioned above are amenable to such an interpretation. We are thus left with a weak comparison, but tantalizing indications that there is more to it than the misassignment of reflexes that properly belong to different etymon. #equal, #equivalent (3) */bali/\2 equal, equivalent WMP: CEB /ba'li/ be worth it; serves one right; worth, in the amount, quantity, duration of; amount taken in advance from wages HAN /ba'li/ good, fitting, suited KB /bali/ equal, identical; as, like; repaid, of a debt DPB /bali/ easily repaid, of a debt; same, identical NOTE: Conklin_(1953) suggests that HAN_/ba'li/ derives from Spanish /valer/ `be worth'. The Batak forms, however, raise doubts about this proposal. #join, #participate, #accompany (3a) */ba'li/\3 join, participate in; accompany WMP: BON /ba'li/ be included, as a child in a game BKL /ba'li/ join, become a member of ; affiliate with, associate with; engage in, partake of, participate in PM */bali/ accompany, escort, lead #lie, #deception (2) */bali/\4 lie, deception dbl. */baRiq/ */ma-bali/ lying, deceiving, untruthful WMP: BON /bali'/ evade, cheat, deceive KAN /bali'/ deceived, cheated, deluded, beguiled, taken in IFG /bali'/ deceit, fraud, lie PGS /ba'li/ lie " /ma-bali/ given to lying, untruthful KEL /balih/ lie, deceive MIRI /bari?/ lie, tell a lie LD /balih/ a lie " /me-balih/ lying, untruthful CMP: NGA /bhali/ twist, distort, misrepresent; falsehood; misinform PAU /hari-hari/ lie, deceive " /hari-hari-ne/ liar BURU /fali-k/ fabricate or make up (a story) #reverse, #turn (2) */bali/\5 reverse, turn around dsj. */balik/ WMP: CEB /ba'li/ reversed, backwards; turn something over; for wind to change direction, switch party loyalty; be reversed, wrong side out, backwards CMP: NGA /bali/ turn oneself around SAVU /b^ari/ turn over in one's sleep " /wari/ turn, change ROTI /fali/ return, go back KMB /weli/ return, turn back NOTE: To the above we might add OJ_/bali/ `come back, return, once more', /wali/ `again, once more', /wali/, /waly-an/ `retribution, compensation', /a-wali wali/ `coming back again and again repeatedly, time and again', JAV_/bali/ `return; remarry', MAD_/a-bali/ `return'. However, the Old Javanese forms are cross-referenced to /waluy/, and it appears likely that the entire Javanese and Madurese data set derives from */baliw/\1, with perhaps some input from */baliw/\2 (OJ_/wali/, /waly-an/ `retribution, compensation'). #shaman, #shamaness, #ceremony (3) */balian/ shaman (probably a transvestite or hermaphrodite), shamaness; shamanistic ceremony WMP: BKL /balya'n/, /balya'n-a/ priestess (Bikol mythology) HAN /balya'n/ shamanism " /balya'n-an/ shaman, medium, shaman doctor SUB /balian/ men and women who perform ceremonies in honor of the gods MAR /walian/ legendary witch WBM /beylan/ (< M) shaman; to act or perform the office of a shaman KAD /bo-bohizan/ priestess IBAN /belian/ perform a rite of Shamanistic curing or exorcism (/pelian/) BAR /wulia/ shamaness, female shaman NgD /balian/ all ceremonies in which the /balian/ (shamaness and ritual prostitute) plays a role; the shamaness herself MNY /wadian/ shaman MAL /belian/ shaman; sorceror or sorceress; touch with the spirit-world OJ /walen/, /walyan/ physician, healer BAL /balian/ shaman, healer (many named varieties) PS */balian/ shaman PM */balian/ (pagan) priest, shaman BM /bolian/ priest, priestess BAR /balia/ priest, priestess in shamanistic ceremonies UMA /balia/ shamanistic ceremony MAK /balie9/ (expected **/balia9/) (archaic) officiant at various rituals WOL /balia/ spirit medium NOTE: Also IBAN_/pelian/ `generic for majority of rites for the sick performed by /mana9/ (shaman)'. Dempwolff_(1938) included MAL_/belian/, NgD_/balian/ with MLG_/vady/ `partner, husband, wife; companion, associate; a mate, one of a set of two' under a proposed etymon */bali/ `escort, accompany'. Among his reasons for doing so we can surmise the following: (1)_several languages in the Philippines and northern Sulawesi reflect a form having the shape and roughly the meaning he reconstructed; (2)_the bulk of vocabulary in Dempwolff_(1938) is disyllabic, and there is a well-attested PAN suffix */-an/. In addition MAL_/belian/, NgD_/balian/ were explicitly assumed to have meant something like `the one who escorts the soul to the other world'. Despite a certain a priori plausibility there is reason to believe that Dempwolff's interpretation of this comparison was incorrect. First, MLG_/vady/ almost certainly reflects */baliw/\2. Second, despite the predilections of some lexicographers (e.g. Barber_1979, who puts BAL_/balian/ under /bali/ `make offerings, sacrifice'), there is little evidence that */balian/ contains a suffix. HAN_/balya'n-an/ can perhaps be cited as indirect evidence that a suffix */-an/ was earlier added to a base */bali/, but there is no known corroboration from any other language, and the evidence is too circumstantial to support a sound inference. Third, */balian/ evidently referred not only to the shaman(ess) but also to the ceremonies of healing and exorcism which they typically conducted; Dempwolff's attempt to relate the semantics of */bali/ and */balian/ are his own, not those of native speakers. It is noteworthy that */balian/ has disappeared without trace in all languages spoken by lowland Christianized Filipinos (but in Bikol was preserved in the real world long enough to incorporate the Spanish feminine ending before retreating into the less persecuted world of mythology). In Moslem communities such as the Maranao, Malay, Makasarese, and Wolio it has survived, though occasionally with semantic change motivated by religious attitudes (Maranao). #fish sp. (3) */baliDa/ fish sp. dbl. */baliDaq/ WMP: TAG /balila'/ hairtail fish: %Trichiurus haumela% CEB /balila/ wolf herring: %Chirocentrus dorab% LBIS /belilo/ = MAL_/belida/ KEN /belira/ a featherback: %Notopterus% spp. IBAN /belida?/ marine fish MAL /belida/ a featherback: %Notopterus% spp., believed by Malays to have once been a cat and to squall like a cat when caught (so not eaten) SND /balida/ k.o. sea and river fish SAN /ba-walira/ k.o. fish NOTE: The exact referent of this term remains unclear. Although the Kenyah and Malay glosses agree the compiler of the Kenyah dictionary (Galvin) probably identified the term which he collected through its Malay cognate, with the consequent danger that the Malay gloss was assumed to apply unchanged to the Kenyah form. #fish sp. (3) */baliDaq/ fish sp. dbl. */baliDa/ WMP: AKL /balila'?/ fish -- quite long, with plenty of spines MAL /belidah/ a featherback: %Notopterus% spp., believed by Malays to have been a cat and to squall like a cat when caught (so not eaten) #weaver's #sword, #lath (1) */balija/, */baRija/ weaver's sword (lath used to beat in and tighten the woof) F: PA */bagig'a?/ reed of loom (Li 1981:287) SAI (Taai) /baLiza?/ batten, reed (of a loom) KAV /vRina?/ reed of loom (Li 1982:483) PAI /vaida/ weaver's sword (for loom) (2) */balija/ {??} WMP: ILK /bali'ga/ flat wooden bar inserted in the shed of the warp to facilitate insertion of the /boloan/ (section of bamboo used to keep the threads in place BON /bali'ga/ the shed stick used for tightening the woof when weaving with a back loom IFG /bali'ga/ sword of an Ifugaw weaving apparatus MAR /barira/ paddle for weaving MAL /bele'ra/, /belira/ (expected **/belida/) weaver's ``sword'' or beater-in KB /balida/ (expected **/baliga/) in weaving, the flat lath with which the woof is beaten in TB /baliga/ weaver's sword OJ /walira/ part of the weaver's loom (a stick or bow) with which the threads are pressed together BAL /belida/ weaver's beam SAS /belida/ part of the weaver's loom SAN /balira/ weaver's lath (used to beat in the woof) BAR /walida/ weaver's lath (used to beat in the woof) TAE' /balida/ weaver's lath (used to beat in the woof) MAK /balira/ weaver's sword WOL /balida/ sword-shaped stick for tightening weaving (part of loom) NOTE: Also IBAN_/belia?/ `(in weaving) beater-in', KMB_/lira/, KODI_/malira/ `lath (used on the weaver's loom)'. All known Formosan reflexes point to */baRija/, while all known Malayo-Polynesian reflexes (except IBAN_/belia?/) indicate */balija/. Since there is evidence that both the Formosan languages collectively and the Malayo-Polynesian languages collectively have participated in phonological innovations independently of the other groups, an unambiguous PAN reconstruction would appear to be impossible (i.e. a PAN_*/balija/ may have changed irregularly in Proto-Formosan, or a PAN_*/baRija/ may have changed irregularly in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian). By contrast we can unambiguously posit PMP_*/balija/. Dempwolff_(1938) included TAG_/balila/ `weaver's sword', but I am unable to find this form in Laktaw_(1914) (his source), or in Panganiban_(1966, 1973). Mills_(1975) notes irregularities in some of the South Sulawesi languages and suggests that these are due to borrowing, possibly from Malay. The irregular reflexes of */j/ in Malay and Karo Batak also suggest borrowing, but given the widespread and discontinuous distribution of regular reflexes the validity of the etymology itself is hardly in question. #grass (2) */baliji/, */balizi/ (type of?) grass WMP: TAG /bali'li/ an aquatic grass: %Panicum stagninum% CEB /bali'li/ general name for grasses that do not grow tall SIM /balixi/, /falixi/ grass (generic) SAN /baliri/ kind of grass BAR /waliri/ kind of herb TAE' /bariri/ grass and weeds collected together to burn in firing pots (8) */palisi/ grass OC: PAK /penit/ grass NAUNA /pelic/ grass PW */varili/ (< M) grass (Goodenough 1961) SELAU /w6sli/ (< M) grass KWAIO /falisi/ grassy undergrowth (generic) AA /harisi/ grass, small clover ULAWA /halisi/ grass; onion (late use) (Ivens 1929) MOTA /valis/ tall coarse grass; in recent use grass generally and onions PETERARA /mbalisi/ grass SONSOROL /fa"tirI/ (< M) grass PUL /fa'til/ general name for grasses TRUK /fetin/ general term for a class of plants including grasses, sedges and ferns SAM /fali_/ kind of grass (?%Scirpodendron% sp.) NOTE: Reconstructed as */bali[jzZ]i/ `grass' in Blust_(1970). With regard to the last consonant SIM_/balixi/, /falixi/ unambiguously indicates */j/, but PAK_/penit/, NAUNA_/pelic/ point to POC_*/ns/, PMP_*/z/, all other known reflexes being indeterminate. Although this item can be securely reconstructed, the supporting cognate set is problematic in this and in certain other respects. First, northern Philippine forms such KAN_/bali'li/ `a rush: %Juncus effusus L.%' and IFG_/bali'li/ `kind of tough grass with long leaves' are either similar to the above forms by chance, or exhibit an unparalleled development of */j/, */l/, and */z/. It is thus possible that all Philippine forms reflect an etymon */balili/ which is distinct from */baliji/ or */balizi/. Second, the two intervocalic consonants in POC_*/palisi/ appear to have metathesized independently in at least three Oceanic languages: Proto-Willaumez, Selau (and perhaps other languages of Buka and Bougainville), and Proto-Micronesian. In at least the latter case the metathesis in this item evidently is part of a more general change (cp. POC_*/paluja/ > PMC_*/fasula/ `to paddle'). Nonetheless the possibility remains that POC had doublets */palisi/ and */pasili/ which show a complementary pattern of retention. Finally, it is unclear whether PMP_*/baliji/, */balizi/ referred to a particular type of grass, or whether it functioned as a generic term. If the latter was the case this reconstruction runs counter to the claim of Brown_(1984) that the generic category `tree' is always lexically encoded before the generic category `grass'. #mix, #blend (5) */balik/\1 mix, blend CMP: ROTI /bali(k)/ mix, blend, add something to something else FOR /valik/ mixture of liquid and dry substances #reverse, #turn (2) */balik/\2 reverse, turn around dbl. */bali/\5 WMP: ILK /bali'k/ change, turn; move to and fro; retract, recant KAP /bali'k/ return something; return to somewhere " /ka-bali'k/ opposite, opponent TAG /bali'k/ return, restoration; return something to someone, restore " /tum-bali'k/ upside-down, wrong end up BKL /bali'k/ back to front, inside out (of shoes on the wrong feet, gloves on the wrong hands); return; revert HAN /bali'k/ return, going back CEB /ba'lik/ go, come back, come back to get something; return to a former state; have a relapse; (do) again; revive MAR /balik/ repeat, return KAD /balik/ backside; turn oneself round, come back IBAN /balik/ turn, turn to look at; turned speech in which syllables are said in reverse order NgD /balik/ change (clothes, words), turned around MLG /vadika/ overturned; changed; turned upside down MAL /bale'k/ reversal, going back; on the contrary; turn back " /ter-bale'k/ overturned, of a ship capsizing, etc. ACH /bale'?/ turned over or around KB /balik/ inverted, backwards, in error SND /balik/ turn around, go back home OJ /balik/ opposite, contrary; reverse " /walik/ turn round, reverse JAV /balik/ on the contrary; in reverse order; turn this way and that " /walik/ on the contrary, the other way around, on the opposite side; the other way; around (as a shirt on backwards); go back on one's word, turn traitor BAL /balik/ be wrong way round, be reversed, (come) from the opposite side SAS /balik/ turn around; resist; capsized (of a boat) PS */balik/ return, go back BGG /balik/ fade, of colors UMA /bali?/ enemy; future part; repayment, retribution TAE' /bali?/ fade, of colors " /balik/ turn around; change, alter MDR /bali?/ return; change into; go home BGS /bali?/ fade, of colors MAK /bali?/ turn oneself around CMP: BIMA /wari/ reversal, going back MGG /balik/ repay, take revenge " /wale'k/ change, turn around RMB /balik/ go home, turn round NGA /bali/ turn oneself around " /vali/ again, further, besides, moreover SAVU /b^ari/ turn over in one's sleep " /wari/ turn, change " /wa`ri/ again ROTI /fali/ return, go back KMB /weli/ return, turn back ATONI /fani/ go home TET /fali/ again, another time; go back, return; to vomit LAM /balik/ return ERAI /halik/ back, go back, return; again LETI /wali/ turn oneself, go back; back again, once again YMD /balik/ turn around or about SEL /balik/ invert, turn upside down KEI /wa_l/ turn around, rotate PAU /hari/ turn over PAM */vali/ turn around NOTE: This important comparison is richly attested in both WMP and in CMP languages. Its basic literal sense appears to have been `to reverse, turn around', from which such derivative senses as `to return home (when on a journey)', `to fade, of colors' and `to repeat, (do, etc.) again' are obtained. In various languages portions of the gloss for this item overlap with the glosses posited for this item overlap with the glosses posited for */baliw/\1 (ILK_/bali'k/, MAR_/balik/, NgD_/balik/, MLG_/vadika/, TAE'_/balik/, MDR_/bali?/, BAL_/balik/, UMA_/bali?/) or */bales/ (UMA_/bali?/, MGG_/balik/). Given their general phonetic similarity and semantic overlap, doubts may occasionally arise as to which reconstruction an attested form reflects (e.g. SAVU_/wari/ `turn, change' could reflect */balik/ or */baliw/\2). #scapula, #shoulder blade (3) */balikat/ scapula, shoulder blade WMP: TAG /bali'kat/ shoulder NgD /balikat/ the side of a thing; on the side, next to MAL /belikat/ scapula, shoulder-blade SND /walikat/ shoulder blade OJ /walikat/ shoulder blade MAD /balikat/ shoulder blade MAK (Salayar dialect) /balika/ shoulder NOTE: The rarity of reflexes outside the Java-Malaya area and areas that have been strongly affected by both Malay and Javanese (as the Ngaju Dayak region in Southeast Borneo) suggests that this item may be a western Indonesian innovation that has spread to Tagalog and Salayarese by borrowing. #encircle, #wrap (3a) */bali'kes/ encircle, wrap around WMP: KAN /bali'kes/ one of the most ordinary kinds of woven belts, yellow and red IFG /bali'koh/ woman's belt CEB /bali'kus/ coil, put around something else (as a python seizing a pig) NOTE: With root */-kes/ `encircle, wrap firmly around'. #reverse, #turn (3a) */baliketa'd/ reverse, turn around WMP: BON /balikta'd/ turn inside out, as clothes; turn over, turn upside down DGT /balikata'r-an/ reversible (as of a jacket that can be worn inside-out) BKL /balikta'd/ inverted, overturned, upside down; the opposite, reverse BM /balikotad/ roll over, turn NOTE: Also KAP_/baligta'd/ `backwards', /baligtar-i'n/ `reversible cloth, political turncoat', TAG_/baligta'd/ `inside-out, upside-down', CEB_/baligta'd/ `wrong side out, up; contrary to what is expected'. Conklin_(1956) gives TAG_/balikta'd/, and notes that in addition to its usual dictionary glosses it refers to a type of ``Pig Latin'' based on systematic phonological distortion intended to conceal the content of messages. In this connection it is noteworthy that Richards_(1981) gives a similar extended meaning for IBAN_/balik/. Prepenultimate */a/ normally becomes BM_//o// (through earlier shwa) and the absence of such a change in the present case suggests that /balikotad/ is still treated by Bolaang Mongondow speakers as bimorphemic. In addition to /balikotad/ Dunnebier_(1951) lists /kotad/ `roll over, turn', thus raising the possibility that */baliketad/ contains a variant of the */qali-/, */kali-/ prefix. At the same time a derivation from */balik/ plus some still unidentified morpheme */etad/ seems likely. #reverse, #turn (3a) */balikid/ reverse, turn over or around WMP: ILK /bali'kid/ reverse; turn over ISG /bali'kid/ turned over, reversed KAN /bali'kid/ come to life again, be resuscitated, rise from the dead CEB /baliki'd/, /balilikid/ turn around, look back WBM /belikid/ turn over; inside out #tie, #around, #belt (3a) */bali'kis/ tie around; belt WMP: IFGBt /bali'kis/ put on an imported belt CEB /bali'kis/ coil, put around something else (as a python coiling round a pig) NOTE: With root */-kis/ `tie, band'. #bend, #curl (3a) */balikutku't/ bend, curl up WMP: ILK /balikutku't/ bend, incline the body, stoop CEB /balikutku't/ bunch, fold, curl up in an irregular way; cause something to do so NOTE: With root */-kut/ `hunched over, bent'. #turn, #revolve (3) {or (3a)?} */balili9/ turn, revolve WMP: TAG /balili'9/ physiologically twisted (of the neck) KAY /belili9/ round, circular (as a coin) MAD /balili9/ fall with a spiraling motion BAR /walili/ circle, circuit MDR /balili/ turn oneself around when lying or sleeping; rotate WOL /balili/ turn around, turn over, roll over NOTE: With root */-li9/ `turn, revolve'. Possibly also SA'A_/palili/ `turn aside', ARS_/bariri/ `turn aside, push aside'. #snail (3a) */balilit/ species of edible snail WMP: DGT /balili't/ species of edible marine triton shell, genus %Cymatium% HAN /bali'lit/ tiny edible fresh-water snail with a smooth, spiraled black shell #somersault (3) */balin-tuaj/ (cf. tuaj) somersault WMP: ILK /bali9tua'g/ turn a somersault, tumble, revolve, rotate; turn upside down BON /balintowa'g/ fall on one's head; tumble end over end TAG /balintuwa'd/ bottom-up, upside down CEB /balintu'wad/ fall headlong on the face; pick someone up by the feet and hold him upside down MAR /balintoad/ somersault TAE' /balittua?/ turn upside down; head over heels, tumble over NOTE: This word appears to contain a variant of the */qali-/, */kali-/ prefix. #misunderstand (3) */bali9/\1 misunderstand, fail to grasp WMP: OJ /wali9/ mistaken belief, thinking (wrongly) " /w-in-ali9/ to think (wrongly) BM /bali9/ temporarily forgotten or misunderstood #turn, #revolve, #spiral, #circle (3) */bali9/\2 turn, revolve */bali9 bali9/ spiral or circle round WMP: TAG /ba'li9/ turn or inclination of the head AKL /bali9-bali9/ unsteady, aimless (said of a flying object without aim) MAR /bali9/ tooth turned inward MAL /bali9/ revolution; circling round a central point " /bali9-bali9/ whirligig; missile hurled by being swung round the head, e.g. a stone attached to a string; bull-roarer KB /bali9/, /bali9 bali9/ bamboo scarecrow that turns like a windmill TB /bali9/ bent, warped; iron implement with which the teeth of a saw are bent (?) " /bali9-bali9/ bamboo scarecrow that turns like a windmill DPB /bali9/ bent, as a board SIM /bali9-bali9/ child's toy windmill TAE' /bali9-bali9/ spiral around while falling NOTE: With root */-li9/ `turn, revolve'. Dempwolff_(1938) also included NgD_/bali9/ `bundle' (= `what is made by winding around'). On similar grounds we might include SUB_/bali9/ `cloth girdle or belt'. #tree, #fruit, #%Averrhoa bilimbi%, #%Averrhoa carambola% (3) */bali9bi9/ a tree and its edible fruit: %Averrhoa bilimbi%, %Averrhoa carambola% WMP: TAG /balimbi'9/ a small tree whose edible fleshy fruit has five longitudinal angular lobes: %Averrhoa carambola Linn.% BKL /balimbi'9/, /bali9bi'9/ starfruit: %Averrhoa carambola% CEB /balimbi'9/, /bali9bi'9/ a small cultivated tree with oblong fruit having longitudinal angular lobes: %Averrhoa carambola% IBAN /belimgi9/ five-ridged fruit: %Averrhoa bilimbi L.% and %Averrhoa carambola L.% MAL /belimbi9/ ridged longitudinally " /buah belimbi9/ fruit from the tree %Averrhoa bilimbi% TB /bali9bi9/ a sour fruit; kind of tamarind SND /cali9ci9/ kind of tree with sour fruit MAD /bali9bi9/ a tree and its edible fruit: %Averrhoa bilimbi% BAL /beli9bi9/ species of fruit which grows on trees SAN /balimbi9/ a tree and its edible fruit: %Averrhoa carambola% NOTE: Merrill_(1954) notes that although this plant is indigenous to tropical Asia it is widely cultivated. As a result part of the distribution of */bali9bi9/ reflexes may be due to borrowing. I assume this to be the case with SIKA_/balimbe9/ `shrub with edible fruit' (expected **/welimbi9/). As noted in Blust_(1970), the heterorganic cluster in this reconstruction suggests that it can be analyzed into a reduplicated monosyllable infixed with */-al-/. #fracture, #break (2) */baliq/ fracture, break WMP: TAG /ba'li?/ fracture, break along the length; fractured, broken AKL /ba'li/ get broken in two, get fractured (as an arm) " /bali'/ broken, fractured CMP: SAVU /b^ari/ broken, in pieces #bird sp., #kingfisher (3a) */balisu'su/ a bird: the kingfisher WMP: KAN /baliso'so/ kingfisher HAN /balisu'su/ medium-sized red-billed kingfisher #athwart (3) */bali(n)ta9/ piece of wood used for a purpose; lie athwart, as a beam WMP: ILK /bali'ta9/ bamboo seat ISG /balita_9/ framework in the shape of a hammock used for transporting tobacco leaves BKL /bali'ta9/ a tripod consisting of three stakes driven into the ground and serving as a holder for a pot (used for cooking when in the fields, on the trail, etc.) CEB /balita'9/ whippletree of a plow; wood used in stripping abaca, fishing with a net that is pulled, etc.; piece of bone, vein or tendon supposed to lie across the vagina which obstructs the easy birth of a child MAL /belinta9/ split bamboo rails for a fence; laying across; cutting off, cutting communications TB /balinta9/ crossbeam of a fence #plant (3a) */balintawa'k/ plant sp. WMP: HAN /balintawa'k/ yellowish sweet-potato having a light-colored skin and a black vine MAR /balintawak/ plant -- grows in river #tree, #banyan, #strangler #fig (3a) */bali'tiq/ a tree: the banyan, strangler fig WMP: ITB /valiti/ plant sp. (%Moraceae%, %Ficus stipulosa Miq.%) ILK /bali'ti/ %Ficus% sp. Moraceous trees whose timber is used for building: %F. indica L.%, %F. stipulosa Miq.%, %F. benjamina L.%, %F. concinna Miq.%, etc. ISG /bali'si/ %Ficus indica L.% and similar species of Moraceous trees KAP /bali'ti?/ sp. of tree, said to be a favored place of spirits TAG /bali'ti?/ type of fig tree BKL /bali'ti?/ banyan (plays a prominent part in legends and mythology, calling forth associations of the dark and evil) HAN /bali'ti/ (expected **/bali'ti?/) a tree (%Ficus benjamina Linn.%), really a vine, which strangles and eventually replaces its tree host AKL /bale'te?/ balete tree: %Ficus benjamina L.% MAR /balinti?/ banyan tree: %Schefflera insularum Seem. Harms% WBM /beliti?/ a balete tree: the strangler fig #adze, #axe (3) */baliu9/ adze, axe WMP: NgD /balio9/ native axe IBAN /belio9/ adze MAL /beliu9/ adze, small hatchet TB /baliu9/ adze MENT /baliok/ axe; chop with an axe SND /baliu9/ native axe or adze PS */baliu9/ axe BM /boliu9/ axe BAR /baliu/ adze (an imported tool) BGS /baliu9/ adze NOTE: Although this item is described as a `native' axe or adze in the sources for Ngaju Dayak and Sundanese, part of the distribution of */baliu9/ reflexes may be a product of borrowing. TET_/baliuk/, /baliun/ `axe' probably is a Malay loan. #dual division, #moiety, #answer, #oppose, #opposite, #partner, #friend, ^enemy, ^repay, ^return (in kind); ^retaliate, ^revenge, ^mourn (2) */baliw/\1 dual division, moiety (a) */{??}/ answer, oppose, opposite side or part; partner, friend, enemy WMP: ILK /ba'liw/ opposite bank, shore IFG /ba'liw/ act of turning oneself when walking, etc. and continue (walking, etc.) in the opposite direction; produce an action which will have an effect which is the contrary of what somebody else tries to produce (e.g. to defend the life of somebody who is attacked); opposite part (e.g. the lowlands are the /bali'w-on/ of the mountain area and vice versa BKL /balyo'/ go across, go over to the other side MLG /vady/ partner, husband, wife; a companion, an associate; a mate, one of a set of two (thus the saucer is the /vady/ of a cup) " /vadylahy/ a friend MENT /baliw/ brother, sister (?) GOR /bali/ opponent, adversary (as in a cockfight) BM /baluy/ (< M) oppose, answer back or contradict the village head BAR /bali/ reverse side, opposite part " /sam-bali/ one side " /si-bali/ merged or fused with TAE' /bali/ companion, mate; partner, whenever two parties oppose each other, as in a cockfight; opponent; answer, oppose resist " /to pa-bali-an/ assistant, helper; the slave who stands at the side of the /to mebalun/ (funeral director) at the performance of the death ritual " /sa9-bali/ one side, either member of body parts that come in pairs " /si-bali/ become a pair, marry PSS */bali/\1 side (friend, partner) " */bali/\1 + /i/ stand beside, help " */bali/\2 enemy (oppose) " */bali/\3 answer (contradict, answer back) WOL /bali/ side, direction, opponent, enemy; counting-word for things occurring in pairs (e.g. parts of the body); face, be opposite to (4) {??} {??} CMP: MGG /bali/ friend; enemy; divided in halves; foreign, alien ROTI /fali/ help, stand beside LETI /wali/ side, half; partner, companion; opponent like /wali-li/ opposite side of the river YMD /bali-n/ side, opposite side; half, one of a pair " /9riye bali-n/ enemy, opponent; opposed party KEI /wali-n/ side, opposite side PAU /halu/ (< */baluy/) answer SOB /fali-haya/ placenta " /fali-tuha/ friend, companion (8) */mpali/ {??} OC: NGG /mbali/ bring together, of opposite planks of a canoe KWAIO /bali/ part, side LAU /bali/ part, side, portion, half; disunited, on the other side; each side in a game; two-edged, two-sided " /bali ?ana geni/, /bali ?ana wane/ bride's people, bridegroom's people MOTA /ta-val-a/ beyond, the other side of " /ta-val-a imwa/ the other side of the house; members of the other /veve/, with whom alone marriage is allowed " /ta-val-iu/ a side or part, where there are two, the one or the other LNW /wali/ the one (or other) of (a pair); the mate of MOKIL /uh-pal/ side with (/uh/ + ``stand'') PUL /pa'liy/, /peliy/ side, as in a game or war; half-section WOLEAI /paliy/ side, flank " /paliy-etam/ outrigger side, windward side of a canoe TAH /pari/ side TUAMOTUAN /pari-a/ a half (b) */{??}/ repay, return in kind; retaliate, take revenge (hence: to equalize a loss or debt) WMP: ILK /bali'w-an/ set right, correct, mend NgD /bali/ blood money for a murder ACH /baluy/ (< M) take revenge; restore or replace after a loss KB /bali/ alike, equal, settled (of a debt) TAE' /bali/ repay, retaliate CMP: MGG /wali/ return in kind (gifts, etc.) RMB /wali/ repay, reply LIO /vali/ restore, equalize a loss, win back what was lost in a game LAM /baliw-an/ make war, take revenge PAU /halu/ answer OC: RAL /ba@li/ repay, replace, compensate, refund; punish, revenge, settle (c) */{??}/ don mourning apparel; mourn for a deceased spouse WMP: IFGBt /ba_lu/ that which a man or woman wears to indicate that his or her spouse has died; to put on clothing to indicate that one's spouse has died PGS /baliw-an/ black clothing worn by a person in mourning; to wear such clothing TM /maluy/ (< M) change into white mourning clothes on the death of one's spouse CMP: FOR /bali-n/ veil oneself, as a woman does when her husband is dead " /na-bali-n nitu/ mourn for the dead, be in mourning OC: LAK /vali/ to mourn MOTA /val/ to refrain from certain food as a sign of mourning NOTE: This is perhaps the single most complex comparison known in Austronesian. For convenience in perceiving semantic groupings the reflexes have been segregated into three clusters, but all are believed to continue the same etymon. The lexicographical issue at stake is how the linguist can distinguish homophony from polysemy in a principled way. On the one hand we could posit homophones (1) */baliw/ `answer, oppose; opposite side or part; partner, friend, enemy'; (2) */baliw/ `repay, return in kind; retaliate, take revenge (hence: to equalize a loss or debt)'; and (3) */baliw/ `don mourning apparel; mourn for a deceased spouse'. However, there are multiple problems with this analysis. First, */-iw/ occurs in only three of the over 2,200 reconstructions in Dempwolff_(1938) (*/baliw/ `change', */baRiw/ `spoiled, tainted', */laRiw/ `flee'), and it would therefore be unexpected to find this rare diphthong in three additional morphemes all of which are homophonous with */baliw/ `change'. Second, suffixed forms reflecting */baliw-an/ occur in at least the semantic clusters (b) and (c). Third, and most critically, all three semantic clusters are related by a pervasive notion of duality, and are fully consistent with descriptions of the psychology of dual divisions in the ethnological literature (see Blust_1980, 1981b for further discussion). On the other hand, we could unite at least the material cited here, as indeed we have done. Dempwolff did not consider this material, but as noted already he split */baliw/\2 into two separate etyma. Later writers, as Mills_(1975) have made similar decisions (in favor of homophony rather than polysemy) for some ot the material cited under */baliw/\1 (a). There can now be little question that all of the forms gathered under */baliw/\1 reflect a single etymon. It is, moreover, likely that */baliw/\1 and */baliw/\2 were the same morpheme. However, the rather distinct character of the glosses associated with reflexes of */baliw/\2, particularly those relating to punitive storms (Blust_1981a), is difficult to reconcile with a hypothesis of a unitary PMP etymon */baliw/. Formally most Oceanic cognates appear to reflect the nasal grade of */b/, but a few languages (Lakalai, Mota, Lonwolwol) evidently reflect the oral grade. I am indebted to Ann Chowning of Victoria University of Wellington and to Ross Clark of the University of Auckland for useful comments and data relating to this comparison. As Clark points out, MOTA_/val/ may not belong with the other forms cited here. #return (1) */baliw/\2 return F: PR */mo-a-baLiw/ return home (2) */baliw/\2 change, exchange; repeat, return; again WMP: ILK /ag-ba'liw/ change, vary, alter, fade, be inconstant, fickle, unstable " /bali'w-an/ repeat, reiterate, do, etc. again BON /bali'w-an/, /nin-ba'liw/ change, as one's habits or appearance TAG /bali'w/ crazy, demented HAN /ba'liw/ transformation, metamorphosis " /b-in-a'liw/ petrified, fossilized AKL /bali'w/ bewitched CEB /ba'liw/ divine punishment, usually for incest, consisting of being struck by lightning and turned into stone; crazy MAR /baloy/ (< M) make into, convert, mutate, enchantment by evil spirit " /baliw-an/ instead of, substitute WBM /baluy/ (< M) turn into or be changed into something, as magic; in the terminology of marriage arrangements, to accomplish or to complete a successful negotiation TIR /baliw-an/ a replacement; to replace KEL /baliw/ punitive storm provoked by incest or mockery of animals in which the offender and his co-villagers are struck by lightning and turned to stone LgT /baluy/ the friends or relatives of a slain man who take revenge on his slayer -- these are the /baluy/ of the slayer MUK /buen baliw/ punitive storm KAY /baluy/ (< M) altered, changed; to repent NgD /baloy/ (< M) repeat; talkative; restore MLG /valu/, /valuz-i/ change, repent IBAN /bali/ changing " /ukoy bali/ chameleon " /mana9 bali/ medicine man who dresses as a woman OJ /bali/, /wali/ come back, return; once more SAN /baliw/ evil spirit that sometimes possesses persons " /baluy/ change something TOULOUR /waloi-en/ (< M) change! (imperative) BM /baliw/ exchange, replace, renew, transform BAR /bali/ repetition; different, changed WOL /bali/ change, lose color, discolor, fade CMP: BIMA /wali/ again, once more NGA /bhale'/ (*/i/ > /e'/ unexpl.) change, exchange, alter SAVU /b^are/, /b^ari/ change, repent, change one's mind KEI /wa_l/ change into BURU /bali/ change, form, become; be transformed, as by magic LETI /wali/ again, once more YMD /bal/ change oneself into NOTE: Dempwolff_(1938) reconstructed */baliw/ `change', */baluy/ `return, come again'. The fuller comparison given here suggests that the supporting evidence cited by Dempwolff belongs to a single cognate set in which the rare diphthong */-iw/ was occasionally altered by metathesis. Next to its more general meaning it is clear that by PWMP time */baliw/ referred to a supernatural punitive storm precipitated by incest or mockery of animals (see Blust_1981 for a fuller discussion). Although a belief in such punitive storms is also found among speakers of CMP and OC languages, as the Ngadha of Flores and the Suau of southeast New Guinea, it is unclear whether a reflex of */baliw/ is used to designate them, and hence whether the meaning of PMP_*/baliw/ included this referent. #duck (3) */baliwis/ wild duck dsj. */bariwis/ WMP: TAG /baliwi's/ kind of wild duck SND /waliwis/ kind of wild duck OJ /waliwis/ kind of duck (%Anas casarca%) #rinse (3a) */baln~aw/ rinse, rinse off WMP: DGT /balna'w/ rinse off in fresh water (after having been in the ocean, to get the salt off one's body); rinse soap out of clothes, or off dishes TAG /banla'w/ (< M) first rinsing BKL /balna'w/ to rinse, rinse off (as soap, dirt) AKL /ba'nlaw/ (< M) rinse out (with water after soaping) CEB /banla'w/ (< M) rinse, clean with water NOTE: With root */-n~aw/ `wash, bathe, rinse'. KAP_/banla'w/ `wash, rinse' (Berga{n~}o) is assumed to be a loan from Tagalog. #plant, #%Thespesia populnea% (2) */balu/\1 a plant yielding useful fibers: %Thespesia populnea% WMP: ITB /valu/ plant sp.: %Thespesia populnea Soland.% MLG /va'lo/ plant whose bark affords a useful fiber: %Dombeya% sp. SIM /falu/ tree sp. (8) */(m)palu/ tree sp. OC: NGG /valu/ tree sp. ARS /haru/ tree sp. LNW /bal/ hibiscus NOTE: Also RMB_/baru tasik/ `a tree: %Thespesia populnea%', BURU_/balu/ `wild cane in streams', MM_/bal-bal/ `kind of tree'. According to Merrill_(1954) the %Thespesia populnea% is a close relative of the %Hibiscus tiliaceus% (*/baRu/), and like the latter its bark yields a useful fiber. Both of these plants and the %Gnetum gnemon% (*/baguh/) share similar useful properties and a similar phonemic shape. Where a specific identification is not given in the source the reflexes of */balu/ and */baRu/ or of */baguh/ and */baRu/ (but never of all three) may be confused in languages that merge */l/ and */R/ or */g/ and */R/ respectively. #rice pestle (2) */balu/\2 rice pestle dbl. */qaSelu/, etc. WMP: SAN /balu/, /ba-walu/ rice pestle CMP: KAM /haru/ rice pestle #some, #more (2) */balu/\3 some, some more WMP: CHM /palu/ some, some more (8) */palu/ {??} OC: MANAM /alu/ another, others; some NGG /mbalu/ (NG) any, some, other; another AA /haru/ a few, some, several SA'A /halu/ some ARS /haru/ some, certain MOTA /valu/ each, every(?) MELE-FILA /faru/ more, some #widow(er) (2) */balu/\4 widow(er) (3) */balu/, */balu balu/ widow(er) WMP: TAG /ba'lo/ widow(er) BKL /balo'/ widow(er) MAR /balo/ widow(er) WBM /balu/ widow(er) MUK /balew/ widow(er) KAY /(de)balo?/ widow SIM /fa-falu/ widow, spinster MAL /balu/ widowed, i.e. left desolate by death. Cf. /janda/ (widow or divorc{e'}e), a commoner word OJ /walu-walu/ widow BAR /balu/ widow(er) who is still in mourning MAK /balu/ widow(er) WOL /balu-balu/ widow(er) CMP: MGG /balu/ old maid NGA /valu/ widow(er) ROTI /falu/ orphan; widow(er) TET /falu-k/ widowed, deprived LETI /palu/ spinster, widow(er) PAU /haru/ widow(er) BURU /falu/ widow NOTE: Also FOR_/waru/, KEL_/wa_r/ `widow(er)'. Three semantic distinctions are observed in comparing the glosses for these forms: (1) some languages appear to apply the reflex of */balu/ only to females, while others apply it to both sexes, 2) Malay recognizes a distinction between one widowed by death and one widowed by divorce or separation, 3) Bare'e recognizes a distinction between a widow(er) in mourning and one who has completed mourning. No evidence is known which would support the reconstruction of any of these distinctions in association with */balu/. #dove (bird), #%Ducula% (1) */baluj/ a dove: probably %Ducula% spp. F: SAI (TAAI) /baLoz/ pigeon KAV /banur/ (< M) dove, pigeon BUN /balu/ wild dove WMP: ILK /ba'log/ kind of wild pigeon, larger than the turtledove, but with the same plumage ISG /ba'lug/ the wood pigeon IFG /ba'lug/ wild dove DGT /balu'd/ pink-bellied imperial pigeon: %Ducula poliocephala% BKL /balo'd/ ring dove HAN /ba'lud/ small wild dove or pigeon (subfamily %Duculinae%) CEB /ba'lud/ cream-colored wild pigeon: %Ducula bicolor% LD (Comber_1971) /balud/ green imperial pigeon: %Ducula aenea% CMP: TET /falur/ variety of large grey pigeon LETI /warnu/ bush dove (8) */mpaluj/ {??} OC: NALI /pay/ dove sp. LONIU /pan/ dove sp. LOU /pOl/ dove sp. WUV /palu/ dove sp. TANGA /bal/ pigeon LABEL /balus/ blue dove CH /balhu/ (< M) pigeon (generic) NOTE: First reconstructed by Dempwolff_(1924-1925) whose comparison, however, lacked Formosan cognates. #sail#boat (2) */baluk/\1 kind of sailing boat WMP: OJ /baluk/ kind of sailing boat? CMP: ROTI /baluk/ one-or two-masted boat without outriggers NOTE: Fox_(n.d.) gives ROTINESE_/balo(balu)/ `boat, ship. Ritual language usage'. Rotinese commonly reflects */b/ as //f//, but shows */b/ > //b// in such likely native forms as */baRu/ > /bau/ `%Hibiscus tiliaceus%' and */batu/ > /batu/ `stone'. This item may be a Javanese loan, but if so it is puzzling that a similar loan is not found in other languages in the Lesser Sundas. #sell (2) */baluk/\2 to sell WMP: SND /baluk/ a woman who goes around the village selling /sirih/ (for the betel chew), tobacco, etc. " /9a-baluk/ carry on the business of a /baluk/ PS */baluk/ to sell BGG /baluk-on/ sold UMA /balu?/ merchandise MAK /balu?/ to sell " /balu?-balu?/ merchandise CMP: MGG /baluk/ trade, sell, exchange RMB /baluk/ trade, sell, exchange NOTE: Also TBL_/he-balu?/ `to sell, as at a market', LETI_/olu/ `sell'. #basket (3a) */balu'la9/\1 large open-worked basket WMP: ILK /balu'la9/ large, open-worked basket with a flat, square, footless bottom and a round rim; it has no cover, and is used for holding tobacco leaves, fodder, etc. ITW /balu'la9/ corn basket PGS /balo'la9/ basket for chickens to nest in TAG /balu'la9/ portable chicken coop made of bamboo splints or palm leaves HAN /balu'la9/ large checker-woven carrying basket hastily made, usually from fresh /buri/ (palm) leaves, for temporary storage or packing #skin, #callus, #hide, #leather (3) */balula9/\2 thick or hard skin, buffalo hide, leather; callus WMP: NgD /balula9/ thick hide (as that of a buffalo); callus (as on the hands) MAL /belula9/ pelt; hide; hard skin; sun-dried untanned leather; callosity; corn; hard skin on bullock's neck; (Brunei, Sarawak) skin, leather SIM /balula9/ corn, callus OJ /walula9/ leather, hide PM */balula9/ skin, hide (scar of wound; callus; thick hide of various animals) BM /bolula9/ antelope skin armor BAR /bayuya/ subcutaneous fat of pigs TAE' /balula9/ skin of men and animals; shield PSS */balula9/ thick hide (as of buffalo); callus (as on the hands) WOL /balula/ horny skin, leather, tendon NOTE: Based on proposed cognates in Tagalog, Javanese, Malay, Ngaju Dayak and Malagasy, Dempwolff_(1938) reconstructed */balula9/ `thick hide'. His inclusion of TAG_/balu'la9/ `Verst{a"}rkungsstrick' and MLG_/valolana/ `bedstead with an embroidered canopy' can, however, be questioned on semantic grounds. Pangasinan_(1966) gives only TAG_/balu'la9/ `portable chicken coop made of bamboo splints or palm leaves', a form which appears clearly related to ISG_/balu'la9/ `very large basket with a round rim and a square foot, for transporting rice in the husk and other products' and related items in other Philippine languages (Ilokano, Hanuno'o). Despite this weakening of Dempwolff's evidence the PWMP provenance of */balula9/ seems assured by the agreement of Malay and especially Old Javanese reflexes with widespread forms in Sulawesi. #mix (6) */balun/\1 mix dsj. */balut/ SHWNG: NUM /baren/ stir into food (8) */mpalun/ {??} OC: TON /palu/ mix and knead in water with the hands SAM /palu/ mix (with the hands) #provisions (3) */balun/\2 provisions for a journey WMP: ISG /ba'lon/ provisions of uncooked rice (when going on a journey) BON /ba'lon/ food taken from the village to be used as a lunch DGT /bilo'n/ rations; food carried along on a trip to be eaten later ILK /ba'lon/ provisions; a stock or store of needed materials when going on a journey TAG /ba'on/ supply of provisions in victuals or money, away from home HAN /ba'lun/ provisions ands necessary articles, including betel, food, trade items, small coinage, etc. which are taken with a person when going away for a period of time CEB /ba'lun/ food, money to take along on a trip KEN /balun/ expenses; provisions on a journey MENT /balut/ provisions, supplies, food SAN /balu9/ provisions for a journey PM */balun/ provisions for a journey BM /balun/ provisions for a journey; bundle of sago, k.o. carrying basket filled with sago NOTE: Also MAR_/baloto?/ `lunch away from home, provision for journey', LD_/balu?/ `provisions'. #tree, #%Mangifera% (3) */balunuq/ a tree: %Mangifera% sp. WMP: MAR /balono?/ tree with fruit like a mango: %Mangifera jack% MAL (Brunei, Sarawak) /belunoh/ a fruit: %Mangifera% sp. SAN /balunu?/ kind of mango tree and its fruit, which has a strong, pleasant odor NOTE: Also PAI_/valuniq/ `fruit of %Ficus wightiana%' (?). #bind, #bundle (1) */baluN/ bind, bundle F: AMIS /falod/ to bind; a bundle (2) */balun/ bind, bundle, wrap in cloth; death shroud; cloth(ing) {?? ILO /balud/ etc. -- LAR} WMP: KAY /balun/ cloth, clothing IBAN /balun/ large rough bundle MAL /balun/ rolling up REJ /balun/ shroud NIAS /balu/ clothing OJ /walun/ a cloth for wrapping or covering TAE' /balun/ wrapping of a corpse BGS /walu9/ wrap up " /pa-walu9/ funeral shroud WOL /balu/ shroud " /balu9-i/ envelop in a shroud PAL /ba'il/ clothing; wrapping material; to wrap (present, package) (4) */balun/ bind, bundle; wrap a corpse; shroud CMP: ROTI /balu/ cover (as with a blanket), enshroud " /palu/ wrap a cloth around the body; cloth for wrapping dead person, shroud KMB /walu9u/ bind together, bundle TET /falu(n)/ packet, parcel, bundle; wrap up, bag up; to shroud a corpse " /fa-falun/ a cover or envelope BURU /balu-n/ to bandage, cover NOTE: Based on proposed cognates in Tagalog, Toba Batak, Javanese, Ngaju Dayak and Malagasy, Dempwolff_(1938) reconstructed */balun/ `roll together'. However, TAG_/balo'n/ `bale of paper' appears to be a Spanish loan. The forms in the remaining languages cited by Dempwolff probably contain a root */-luN/ (cf. */luluN/ `roll together'). Since AMIS_/falod/ is the only non-MP reflex of */baluN/ discovered to date the PAN gloss of this item is rather general (`bind; bundle'), but by PMP times the form apparently referred to the wrapping of a corpse and to the death shroud or wrapping cloth itself. Whether PMP_*/balun/ also functioned as the general term for `cloth, clothing' or whether these meanings are secondary is a moot point. #mourn (2) */baluq/ mourn the dead WMP: MAR /balo?/ sound the death toll, beat gong for dead WBM /balu?/ the slow beat of the death call, which is beaten on the /agu9/ (gong) TIR /balu?/ stick for beating gongs; strike a gong KAD /bahu/ canopy over the dead BM /balu/ (expected **/balu?/) mourn CMP: MGG /walu/ mourn NGA /valu/ grieve, mourn ROTI /falu/ mourn the dead; mourners at a funeral (8) */paluq/ {??} OC: ARS /haru/ give the final death feast six months after death; the final death feast NOTE: This comparison, potentially of considerable culture-historical importance, is exasperatingly tenuous. Jonker_(1908) points out that the Korbaffo dialect of Rotinese has /fali/ `mourn the dead', /falu/ `orphan, widow', and he gives this as evidence that standard ROTINESE_(TERMANU)_/falu/ `mourn the dead' and /falu/ `orphan, widow' are distinct words. BM_/balu/ `mourn', on the other hand, probably shows contamination from */balu/ `widow(er)'. The Arosi form may bear only a chance resemblance to the other items, but the correspondences are regular and the meaning is similar. #vine, #%Entada scandens% (3) */baluRu/ a vine: %Entada scandens% WMP: HAN /balugu'/ large reddish, woody, tendril-bearing vine: %Entada scandens Benth.%; the bark is used as soap MAR /balogo/ orange used for blackening teeth IBAN /beruru/ an herb, %Salomonia cantoniensis Lour.%, used as liniment; a climber, %Mucuna biplicata%, used as lashings and in medicine; " /buah beruru/ seed box used as container MAL /beluru/ a climber: %Entada scandens%, the hard-skinned fruit of which is used by potters in polishing their wares #mix (2) */balut/\1 mix dsj. */balun/\1 WMP: NgD /balut/ mixture; something with which one mixes something else; mixed (8) */mpalut/ mix OC: TON /palu/ mix and knead in water with the hands SAM /palu/ mix (with the hands) #roll, #wrap (3) */balut/\2 roll or wrap something up WMP: ILK /ba'lut/ to gather, to roll up (garments, mats, etc.) DGT /balu't/ wrap something up in leaves, cloth or paper TAG /ba'lot/ covering, wrapping " /balo't/ covered, wrapped IBAN /balut/ wrapping; band, bandage, small bundle; wrap up, entangle MAL /balut/ bandaging, enwrapping KB /balut/ wrap something SIM /balud/ bundle BGS /walu?/ bundle MAK /balu?/ roll up (mats, cloth) NOTE: Evidently distinct from such northern Philippine forms as BON_/ba'lod/ `bind, tie up, imprison'. CHM_/balut-an/ `infold, wrap up, swathe, swaddle, bundle, pregnant, cover by winding round or folding, roll up' appears to be a loan. #dugout #canoe (3a) */balu'tu/ dugout canoe WMP: ILK /baloto'/ small dugout canoe without outriggers HAN /balu'tu/ dugout, or small canoe CEB /balu'tu/ small boat with a dug-out bottom, plank or /sawali/ (bamboo matting) sidings, and usually with outriggers MMN /baloto/ canoe MAR /baloto/ small boat SML /balutu/ kind of outrigger canoe NOTE: Reflexes of */balutu/ are widely distributed throughout the Philippines, while reflexes of a variant */barutu/ also occur in Southern Luzon, the Bisayas, and Mindanao. A Proto-Philippines etymon */balutu/ thus seems fairly secure. In addition, Stresemann_(1927) posited ``Sub-Ambon''_*/balutu/ `sailboat' based solely on SAPARUA_/palutu/. Together with the Philippine forms this reconstruction suggests a PMP term */balutu/ which referred to some type of boat. However, Stresemann's source for Saparua (van Ho{e"}vell_1877) does not list /palutu/. Collins_(p.c.) notes that similar, but apparently non-corresponding forms are found in some languages on the north coast of Seram (SALAS_/palu't/, BENGGOI_/balu'tam/, KOBI_/balo'ta/). The lack of known cognates elsewhere outside the Philippines and the feebleness of attestation in the Moluccas raises suspicions that this form was not found in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. It is possible that the Moluccan forms result from contact with Sama-Bajaw sea nomads (cf. SAMA-BAJAW_/balutu/ `type of outrigger canoe'). Collins_(p.c.) reports that other names for particular types of boats have been introduced into the Moluccas during the recent past by immigrants from Sulawesi. Moreover, there are other linguistic indications of the incursion of Samalan speakers into Indonesia, as with MAK_/bala9i9i?/ `sea nomad' (a reference to the Balangingi Samal). If this is the correct explanation for the appearance of reflexes of */balutu/ in the Moluccas it is possible that many (or all) Philippine forms have a similar source. #tree, #%Lagerstroemia speciosa% (3a) */banaba'/ a tree: %Lagerstroemia speciosa% WMP: ILK /banaba'/ %Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.)%. Tree with large panicles of lilac-purple flowers, yielding a valuable timber KAP /banaba'/ tree of fine quality (Berga{n~}o) TAG /banaba'/ deciduous tree cultivated for its beautiful flowers; its timber; the tannin from its fruit, leaves and bark: %Lagerstroemia speciosa Linn.% BKL /banaba'/ timber-producing deciduous tree with light purple flowers HAN /banaba'/ large tree: %Lagerstroemia speciosa Linn.% AKL /banaba'(h)/ medicinal tree: %Premna cumingiana Schaver% CEB /banaba'/ medium-sized tree of the secondary forest, also planted for its lilac or pink flowers. The leaves are commonly used as a tea for stomach or kidney disorders: %Lagerstroemia speciosa% MAR /banaba/ medicinal tree #thread, #yarn (3) */banae9/ thread, yarn WMP: MALOH /bana9/ thread MAL /bena9/ thread NIAS /bana/ yarn, twine DPB /bena9 benalu/ kind of cotton thread SAN /banae9/ thread, yarn BGG /banaa9/ (< A) thread, yarn BAR /bana/ formerly the term for all colored cotton, through which all old-fashioned textiles that still are used in religious ceremonies are called /bana/ TAE' /banna9/ thread, yarn MAK /banna9/ thread, yarn #radiance (2) */banaqaR/, */sinaR banaqaR/ radiance, as of rising sun see */siNaR/ WMP: DGT /bana'ag/ rays (of the rising sun) TAG /bana'?ag/ soft ray, glimmer BKL /bana'?ag/ beam of light; moonlight, firelight AKL /bana'?ag/ rays (of the rising sun); to be rising (said of sun), send off rays HLG /bana'?ag/ dawn, early morning, rays of the sun CEB /bana'?ag/ ray of light MAR /banag/ dawning, as the light is breaking for dawn MAL /sinar banar/ radiance, brilliance JAV /banar/ open on all sides (for sun, light) CMP: FOR /vana/ be light, bright KAM /pana/ to shine, of the sun BURU /bana/ fire " /bana sina-n/ spark ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (2) */sinaR banaqaR/ radiance, as of rising sun WMP: MAL /sinar banar/ radiance, brilliance CMP: BURU /bana sina-n/ spark NOTE: Also MUK_/panah/ `ray of (light)'. With root */-NaR/ (or */-NaqaR/?) `ray of light'. #hit, #beat, #thrash (3) */banat/\1 hit, beat, thrash WMP: TAG /ba'nat/ a strike, sock, box, or stroke to hit something BKL /ba'nat/ to hit MAL /banat/ to thrash, to drub #stretch (3) */banat/\2, */ban~at/ stretch dbl. */binet/ WMP: ILK /ba'nat/ lengthening -- by forging TAG /ba'nat/ a pull to stretch " /bana't/ taut, stretched KEN /banat/ stretched {?? recheck KEN and KAY forms} " /ban~at/ stretched; expanded KAY /banat/ stretched " /ban~at/ stretched; of elastic bodies, expanded NOTE: Also ILK_/a'nut/ `meat full of sinews', ILK_/benna't/, PGS_/pi'nat/, /ona't/, BKL_/igni't/, /una't/, CEB_/i'nat/, /u'nat/, WBM_/kanat/ `to stretch', TAG_/gani't/ `toughness for mastication', /kunat/ `ductility, resiliency', BKL_/igni't/ `stretch s.t.', IBAN_/un~ut/ `stretch, lengthen', MAL_/on~ot/ `pull, as one pulls at the breast', SAS_/n~at/ `stretch; spring up', suggesting the widespread occurrence of roots */-nat/, */-n~at/; */-net/, */-n~et/; */-nit/, */-n~it/; and */-nut/, */-n~ut/. #open #space (3) */banawa9/ open space WMP: PGS /banawa9/ canal, ditch, trench MUK /benawa9/ door BM /bonawa9/ roomy and light; the forepart of a house; annex built under the (overhanging) roof whether in the front of the house, or on the side NOTE: Also BM_/bonaa9/ `roomy and light'. With root */-wa9/ `wide open space'. {keep anything from orig.?: NOTE: Also ILK_/bana'wag/ `wide open space'. Possibly a convergent development.} #plant, #bast #fiber, #%Maranta dichotoma% (3) */banban/ a plant, the bast fibers of which are used in binding and plaiting: %Maranta dichotoma% dbl. */benben/ WMP: ISG /bamba'n/ %Donax cannaeformis Rolfe% ILK /banba'n/ strips of bamboo KAN /banba'n/ scraped rattan; cleaned bamboo IFG /banba'n/ the inner, soft fibers of rattan thongs TAG /bamba'n/ inner follicle (of fruits); a plant: %Donax cannaeformis% BKL /bamba'n/ wild grass used in making baskets HAN /bamba'n/ species of grasslike plant: %Donax cannaeformis% AKL /ba'nban/ herb used for roofing: %Donax cannaeformis% CEB /banban/, /b-al-anban/ a branching reed, the main stem of which is split and used in weaving and in sewing nipa shingles: %Donax cannaeformis% TIR /banban/ general term for arrowroot: %Maranta arundinacea% NgD /bamban/ plant whose bast fibers are used in binding and plaiting KB /banban/ a plant from which strips are cut for use in beautiful plaitwork: %Maranta dichotoma% SND /ba9ban/ kind of pliable reed from which hats and baskets are made JAV /bamban/ kind of reed used to make mats TAE' /bamban/ low tree the bast fibers of which are used as binding material in house construction: %Grewia laevigata% NOTE: Although reflexes of */banban/ refer to the %Donax cannaeformis% in several Philippine languages it is clear that the PMP word for the latter plant was */niniq/. That */banban/ referred to %Maranta% species seems likely from two facts. First, TIR_/banban/ `arrowroot: %Maranta arundinaces%' refers to a plant of a different species, but the same genus. Second, Dempwoff_(1938) citing Merrill, gives TAG_/banban/ `%Maranta dichotoma%', a gloss which differs from that in Panganiban_(1966), but which agrees perfectly with KB_/banban/. #fish corral, #trap (3) */banelat/ fish-corral, screen trap for fish WMP: KAP /banla't/ pig pen, cage TAG /banla't/ pig pen; fish corral in rivers MAL /belat/ screen made of rattan strips tied to one another longitudinally; screen-trap for fish NOTE: For the development in this form cf. Blust_(1982). #bruise, #welt (3a) */baneR/ to bruise, raise welts WMP: PGS /bane'l/ to crush BKL /bano'g/ bash, hit hard, strike CEB /ba'nug/ for fruits to be bruised; bruise by pounding HAN /banu'g/ serious external bruises resulting in internal hemorrhage MAR /baneg/ welt TIR /baneg/ welt #numb, #a#sleep (3a) */banhe'd/ numb; ``fall asleep'', of a limb WMP: ITW /banna'd/ numbness " /na-banna'd/ numb CEB /banhu'd/ numb from loss of circulation or anesthesia; become numb, for limbs to fall asleep MAR /bened/ numb, numbness WBM /be-vened/ numb; cause loss of feeling or pain, i.e. as a person's leg ``goes to sleep'' or of medicine which ``kills pain'' BM /banod/ ``sleeping'', of foot or hand NOTE: Zorc_(1971) gives */banihej/, */banhej/ `numb', but ITW_/banna'd/ contradicts */-j/. #tree (3a) */bania'kaw/ tree sp. WMP: ISG /baniya'kaw/ kind of tree BON /banya'kaw/ tall tree, the wood of which is used for making pestles and spear shafts: %Dysoxylon sp. (Meliac.)% ILK /baniakaw/ kind of tree yielding a poor timber BM /boniakow/ kind of tree NOTE: This item may contain a variant of the */qali-/, */kali-/ prefix. #inhabited #land, #territory (2) */banua/ inhabited land, territory supporting the life of a community WMP: ITB /vanua/ landing place, port PGS /banwa'/ sun KAP /banwa'/ year; sky, heaven CEB /banwa'/ fatherland; town, village HLG /banwa'/ town, community; a compactly settled area usually larger than a village but smaller than a city AKL /banwa'(h)/ town, country SUB (Sc) /meg-banua/ live, dwell MALOH /banua/ country, land; commoner IBAN /menoa/, /menua/ area of land held and used by a distinct community, esp. longhouse (/rumah/), including house, farms, gardens, fruit groves, cemetery, water and all forest withing half a day's journey. Use of the /menoa/ is only gained and maintained by much effort and danger, and by proper rites to secure and preserve a ritual harmony of all within it and the unseen forces involved; home, abode, place, district, country, region " /menoa la9it/ the heavens, abode of /Petara/ and other deities MAL /benua/ large expanse of land; empire; continent; mainland in contrast to island. To the old Malays even a large island like Java was a /benua/ TB /banua/ land, district, region " /banua ginja9/ upper world, heaven " /banua to9a on/ middle world, Earth " /banua toru/ underworld, world of the dead SIM /bano/, /fano/ land, place, district NIAS /banua/ sky, heaven, thunder; village; homeland; fellow villager; serf " /banua tou/ underworld MENT /manua/ sky, heaven OJ /wanwa/ inhabited place or area; village, settlement SAN /banua/ land, district; people; state; sea; weather TND /wanua/ village BAR /banua/ house " /wanua/ den of an animal BGG /bonua/ house, dwelling " /so-bonua-n/ one night TAE' /banua/ house, members of a household MDR /banua/ town; district, area MAK /bata9 banoa/, /bata9 banua/ title of the heads of certain districts (archaic and poetic) " /banoa/ sheath (for a knife) PAL /belu'u/ country, village, place CMP: SEL /hnu(a)/ village YMD /pnue/ village SHWNG: BULI /pnu/ village NUM /menu/ village (8) */panua/ village OC: PADM */panua/ village EMIRA /anua/ house MENDAK /anu/ house LABEL /hanua/ homestead ({GERMAN} Geh{o"}ft), place DY /wanua/ land, country LAK /la valua/ the men " /e-valua-gu/ members of my sib MANAM /anua/ village " /anua idaradara/ evening glow, sunset glow " /anua izara/ dawn GED /panu/ village, settlement, hamlet, town, place, city MOTU /hanua/ village, town " /hanua boi/ night MOL /vanua/ house " /vanua pou/ residents of a village BWAI /manua/ house, dwelling M-A /fanua/ fellow clansman MAROVO /vanua/ house BUG /vanua/ land, island LONGGU /vanua/ people " /na vanua/ the people LAU /fanua/ land, earth; weather KWAIO /fanua/ place, village, shrine-territory SA'A /hanua/ land, country, village, site of a village, place AA /hanua/ land, as opposed to /asi/ sea; district, place, country, island; the territory, area where a person lives, where his possessions are, such as food, bamboo, trees, pigs, water and graves is called his /hanua/ ARS /hanua/, /henua/ island, village (in compounds) WOLEAI /faliuw/ land, island MOTA /vanua/ land, island, village, place WUSI-MANA /wanua/ house ROT /hanua/ land, country, place; native land or place, home. Special uses: (a) it (when referring to conditions of light and darkness), (b) people, as in /kei tei hanue/? `Where are the people?' FIJ /vanua/ land, region, place; used in a number of weather expressions, /sa siga na vanua/ `it is daylight'; /sa bogi na vanua/ `it is night' TON /fonua/ land, country, territory, place; people (of the land, etc.) SAM /fanua/ land; field HWN /honua/ land, earth NOTE: Also TIR_/fenuwo/ `a place, a village'. The presence of */-h/ in PMP_*/banua/ is suggested by AKL_/banwa'(h)/, but is contradicted by ITB_/vanua/. For a detailed discussion of the meaning of this morpheme cf. Blust_(1987). #tree, #%Octomeles% (3) */banua9/ a tree: %Octomeles% spp. WMP: TAG /banua9/ a tree: %Octomelis% sp. TIR /benuwo9/ a tree: %Endospermum peltatum Merr.% NgD /banua9/ tree of the inner forest, often used in making rafts on account of its buoyant wood MAL /benua9/ a tree: %Sterculia alata%. Its very light wood serves to make stoppers for bottles IBAN /benua9/, /menua9/ quick growing softwood riparian tree similar to /entipo9/, %Octomeles sumatrana Miq.% #tree (3) */banuay/ tree sp. WMP: KAN /banua'y/ kind of tree MAL /benuai/ a tree: %Kayea grandis% NOTE: Also BON_/banwa'y/ `berries of the /alimomo'so9/ tree (%Vaccinium barandanum Vidal (Ericac.)%)' {??check}, CEB_/banwa'gi/ `kind of tree'. #hawk, #eagle (3a) */banu'g/ hawk, eagle WMP: ISG /banno'g/ kind of large bird; spirit who takes the shape of a large bird and, in his flight, carries away the victim he is going to kill BON /bano'g/ Asiatic sparrow hawk, %Accipiter virgatus confusus% KAN /bano'g/ kind of kite with gray and white plumage IFG /bannu'g/ kind of bird of prey said to eat small snakes, and cannot fly as quickly as other birds of prey IFGBt /bannug/ a bird commonly called a Red-tailed hawk AKL /bano'g/ bird of prey (hawk) CEB /banu'g/ large hawk with chocolate-brown feathers and white-colored breast WBM /banug/ generic for hawks and eagles MAR /banog/ vulture TIR /banug/ (L) {??} general term for eagles NOTE: Also TAG_/bano'y/ `eagle (the larger of the Philippine variety)'. Dempwolff compared this form with MLG_/vano/ `heron' and reconstructed */ba(n)uy/, but Dahl_(1976:106) has shown that Dempwolff's comparison is invalid. If the Tagalog word is an early Kapampangan loan (a cognate is unknown in the latter language) it may point to */-R/. The similarity of these words and of TAG_/bano'y/ to such Bornean forms as LD_/kanuy/, KEL_/keniw/ `eagle' remains to be clarified. #fish hook (3a) */banuit/ fish hook WMP: ISG /bannuwe't/ large fishhook, some two inches long, often baited with locusts PGS /banui't/ fish with a rod; fishhook BKL /banwi't/ fish hook HAN /ba'nwit/ fishing tackle MAR /banoit/ fishhook, hook NOTE: Also ILK_/banni'it/ `fishhook'. With root */-wit/ `hook-shaped', varying phonemically with */-it/ following a rounded vowel. #coconut, #palm, #fiber (3a) */banuqut/ coconut fiber, palm fiber WMP: CEB /banuut/ sheath of a coconut blossom WBM /benut/ the black hair-like substance found on the trunk of a leafy palm of the genus %Caryota% MAR /bano?ot/ palm with black hair-like fibers BM /banut/ coconut fiber NOTE: This item apparently contains a variant of the root */-nut/ `husk, fiber'. #tree sp. (3a) */banu'tan/ tree sp. WMP: IFG /banu'tan/ a tree the stem of which yields a very hard and reddish timber BM /bonutan/ tree sp., %Mallotus Moluccanus% NOTE: Also IFG_/ba?nu'tan/ idem, MAL_/benitan/ `a tree: %Goniothalamus% sp., used for making masts'; /benitan merah/ `{}``red /benitan/'', a tree: %Schoutenia mastersi%'. {?? note breakup of single and double quotes} #thorny #vine, #%Smilax% (1) */baNaR/ a thorny vine: %Smilax% spp. F: KAV (Li_1982: 491) /banaR/ plant sp. KNB /vana'r6/ a plant: %Smilax china% SAR /val_ar6/ a plant: %Smilax china% TSOU /fkor6/ a plant: %Smilax china% BUN /banal/ a plant: %Smilax china% PAI /val_a/ a plant: %Smilax bracteata%, %S. china% AMIS /fadal/ thorny briar plant (2) */banaR/ a thorny vine: %Smilax% spp. WMP: ILK /bana'g/ %Smilax bracteata Presl.%, a woody, liliaceous vine, armed with spines; its root is used in infusions to purify the blood BON /bana'l/ kind of vine, commonly used for binding shoulder loads of firewood. %Smilax bracteata Presl.% CEB /bana'g/ woody, spiked vine found in thickets, the tips and fruits of which are used medicinally: %Smilax bracteata% TIR /banar/ kind of vine, %Smilax% sp. TBL /banal/ thorny plant, the sap of which is used as medicine for pimples MAL /banar/ a climber, %Smilax% sp. " /banar babi/ (Pahang) %Smilax helferi%, the leaves of which are used for poulticing NIAS /lam-bana/ (listed under /bana/) kind of vine SAS /banar/ a tuberous plant related to %Dioscorea hirsuta%: %Smilax zeylanica% BM /banag/ kind of creeper, used as cordage (4) */{??}/ CMP: MGG /wanar/ a thorny vine: %Smilax modesta% NOTE: Also KAN_/bana'/ `%Smilax verruculosa Merr.%, a climbing liliaceous shrub with alternate leaves, thorns, and small dioecious flowers', SAN_/banehe?/ `vine with thorns and large, round leaves'. Reflexes of */baNaR/ are widely distributed in Taiwan and the Philippines, but appear to be rarer in western Indonesia, and very rare in eastern Indonesia. Verheijen_(1984:67) cites /wanar/ from several dialects of Manggarai, but the form is still to be found in other CEMP languages. #male (1) */baNaS/ male (of animals?) F: SED /balas/ male, masculine SAI /bala/ male PAZ /balas/ male, of animals and fowls PAI /val_as/ male, of animal (somewhat obscene) (2) */banah/ husband WMP: CEB /bana/ husband " /pamana/ for women to get married " /pamanh-u'nun/ husband-to-be BIN /bana/ husband TUNJUNG /wana/ husband KAPUAS /bana/ husband NOTE: Also TAG_/ba'na?/ `husband'. The meaning of this etymon is problematic. PAN_*/ma-RuqaNay/ clearly meant `male' with reference to human beings, a meaning which persisted in PMP. Moreover, PMP_*/qasawa/ clearly meant `spouse', a meaning which persisted in PWMP. It follows that PWMP had co-existing terms */qasawa/ `spouse' (either husband or wife) and */bana/ `husband'. Whether such a situation obtained earlier than PWMP, however, is unclear. The similarity of VARTAWO_(VANUATU)_/vana/ `husband' to the above forms apparently is due to chance. #thorny #vine, #%Smilax% (1) */baNaw/ a thorny vine: %Smilax% spp. dbl. */baNaR/ F: RUK (Mantauran dialect) /val_au/ a plant: %Smilax% sp. (2) */banaw/ WMP: MAL /banau/ a plant name'; = /banar/ (%Smilax% sp.) (?) NOTE: Tsuchida_(1976) posits ``Proto-Hesperonesian''_*/baNaR/ `a vine: %Smilax% sp.', citing the nonconforming Mantauran form in a footnote (p. 191, fn. 41). #skin (v.), #flay (1) */baNiC/ to skin, flay dbl. */qaNiC/ skin, hide dbl. */panit/ F: PAI /b-n-al_its/ remove tree bark or old thatch " /b-n-u-l_a-l_its/ to skin an animal WMP: KAY /banit/ be scratched on the skin (as by thorns) BUSANG /banit/ excoriated, skinned CMP: SIKA /banit/ to skin, flay YMD /na-banit/ to remove, as the copra from the shell in drying, anything that sticks, the skin, etc. NOTE: Also DY_/pani/ `skin, bark'. Ferrell_(1978) lists the Paiwan forms under a theoretical root **/bal_its/. I take */b-aNiC/ to be a morphologically complex form of */qan~iC/ (Blust_1970) `skin, hide', the medial consonant having earlier been reconstructed in error. The relationship of this form to PAN_*/qaNiC/ `skin, bark' remains unclear. Both morphemes could share a common root */-NiC/, but such a root is otherwise unknown. Alternately, given the correlated differences of form and word-class */baNiC/ could contain a prefix. However, a prefix */b-/ is otherwise unattested. #sneeze (3) */ban~an/ to sneeze see */ban~en/ {??} #wash (1) */ban~aw/ wash the body F: PR */banaw/, */ma-banaw/ wash, bathe AMIS /fanaw/ to wash articles of any kind (not cloth) PAI /ma-vanaw/ take a bath (2) */ban~aw/ wash the hands WMP: ITB /ma-vanaw/ wash the hands KAN /ba'naw/, /ba'new/ to dip, soak, steep, drench, wet (as a kettle with adherent dirt) SBL /mi-bano/ wash the hands HAN /bana'w/ dipping of fingers in water AKL /ba'naw/ to wash (hands, feet) CEB /ba'naw/ for liquids to be spread over an area, spread liquids (as water over a floor) MOK /man~au/ wash (bottle), baptize (dip in water) NIAS /bano/ wash the hands (before eating) KULAWI /wano/ wash the hands UMA /wano/ wash the hands TAE' /bano/ wash, rinse off CMP: SEL /han/ wash the hands SHWNG: NUM /ban/ wash with water (body and objects, not clothes) (8) */pan~o/ {??} OC: TON /fano-fano/ wash the hands NIUE /fano-fano/ to rub (as in washing clothes) ANU /pano-pano/ wash the hands ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */ma-ban~aw/ wash the body F: PR */ma-banaw/ wash, bathe RUK (Tanan dial.) /ma-bana'w/ wash, bathe PAI /ma-vanaw/ take a bath (2) */ma-ban~aw/ wash the hands WMP: ITB /ma-vanaw/ wash the hands IVT /ma-banaw/ wash hands, feet SBL /mi-bano/ wash hands, feet KULAWI /mo-wano/ wash the hands UMA /mo-wano/ wash the hands MOK /man~au/ wash (bottle), baptize (dip in water) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3) /mem-ban~aw/ wash, rinse off WMP: NIAS /mom-bano/ wash the hands (before eating) TAE' /mem-bano/ wash, rinse off NOTE: With root */-n~aw/ `wash, bathe, rinse'. TAG_/banla'w/ `first rinsing', BKL_/balna'w/ `to rinse, rinse off (as soap, dirt)', and similar forms in other Philippine languages appear to be distinct. #sneeze (3) */ban~en/, */ban~an/ to sneeze dbl. */ben~an/ WMP: ISG /bana'n/ to sneeze. When people set out on a journey and one of them sneezes, this person may go on, but all the others must turn back, lest they be drowned or wounded NgD /ban~en/ to sneeze. If one wishes to set out on a journey and someone in the house sneezes it is a bad sign; one must then postpone the journey SIM /fanan/ to sneeze SAN /benna9/ (< M) to sneeze {directions unclear: BIMA, SAVU, PM under CMP or in NOTE. Chg. level to 2?} NOTE: Also BIMA_/b^eni/, SAVU_/ben~i/, SAN_/bina9/ `to sneeze', PM_*/ba?an/ `sneeze' . The Isneg and Ngaju Dayak glosses suggest that in PWMP society it was considered a bad omen to sneeze at the outset of a journey. Since Mariner_(1817:1:456) reports a similar belief in Tonga it is possible that this belief has an even older history among Austronesian-speaking peoples. For a still useful general account of the ethnology of sneezing, cf. Tylor_(1871:1:97ff). #palm (3) */ba9ah/ palm sp. WMP: HAN /ba9a/ tall palm (probably %Orania decipiens Becc.%) AKL /ba9a(h)/ palm tree: %Orania palindan% MAR /ba9a/ palm tree TAE' /ba9a/ a palm: %Metroxylon elatum Mart.% MAK /ba9a/ kind of pandanus NOTE: Zorc_(1982:119) posits ``Proto-Hesperonesian-Formosan''_*/ba:9aS/ `tree', comparing the Aklanon and Hanuno'o items with Formosan forms that refer to the %Melia azedarach%, a member of the family to which the mahogany and Spanish cedar belong. However, PWMP_*/ba9ah/ almost certainly designated a palm, and the present comparison is included to establish this point. #open, #open (mouth) (3) */ba9aq/ open the mouth WMP: WBM /ba9a?/ carry something in the mouth NgD /ba9ah/ open (door, mouth) NOTE: With root */-9a(q)/ `gape, open the mouth wide'. Dempwolff_(1938) reconstructed */ba9a/ `be open'. #insect (1) */ba9aw/ noxious insect F: AMIS /fa9a'u/ bedbug WMP: TAG /ba9aw/ botfly NOTE: Also ILK_/da'9aw/ `kind of stinkbug, very destructive to young ears of paddy', HAN_/pu'9aw/ `taro beetle', IBAN_/pa9au/, /empa9au/ `paddy bug', MAL_/a9au/ `small jungle tick', /pa9au/, /cena9au/ `foul-smelling bug that preys on rice', /tu9au/ `black sand-flea'. #broad, #spacious (3) */ba9ba9/\1 broad, spacious WMP: IBAN /bamba9/ large, broad (as leaves) MLG /ba'mbana/ boundless space SIM /famba9-an/ extend outward TB /ba9ba9/ wide, spacious BI /bamba9/ flat and wide, spacious BM /bamba9/ wide, broad (as tree branches) NOTE: With root */-ba9/ `broad'. Dempwolff_(1938) reconstructed */ba9ba9/ `wide, spread out', but included as supporting evidence two forms (TAG_/bamba9/ `canal, ditch', NgD_/bamba9/ `hewed out (wood)') that I assign to other cognate sets. #butterfly, #moth; #butterfly fish (1) */ba9ba9/\2 butterfly, moth (also ``butterfly fish''?) dbl. */be9be9/, etc. F: PUY(T) /Hali-va9ba9/ butterfly, moth WMP: ILK /kuli-ba9ba9/ butterfly, moth ILT /kali-ba9ba9/ butterfly POLILLO DUMAGAT /sali-ba9ba9/ butterfly GAD /ali-famba9/ butterfly CEB /ali-ba9ba9/ butterfly, butterfly fish WBM /keli-va9ba9/ butterfly ACH /bamba9/, /ba9ba9/ butterfly SCH /ali-famba/ butterfly BAR /kala-bamba/ butterfly TAE' /kalu-bamba9/ large butterfly NOTE: With rare exceptions (e.g. ACH_/bamba9/, /ba9ba9/) reflexes of this form always contain the */qali-/, */kali-/ prefix. The agreement of GED_/kili-bob/ `butterfly; yellow marine fish about 8 inches long' with CEB_/ali-ba9ba9/ `butterfly, butterfly fish' suggests that PMP_*/ba9ba9/ applied both to %Lepidoptera% and to fish of the family %Chaetodontidae%. #cavity, #pit, #den, #excavate (2) */ba9ba9/\3 cavity, pit, den; to excavate a pit WMP: BON /ba9ba9/ to bury, as a dead animal or rubbish IFG /ba9ba9/ plant something that must grow in the earth, not in the mud TAG /bamba'9/ canal, ditch WBM /ba9ba9/ a hole dug in the ground; to dig MENT /babak/ excavation, hole, den BAL /ba9ba9/ hollow place, esp. in a road; pit, grave; den; dig a hole or pit in the ground (8) */mpampa9/ {??} OC: MONO /baba/ a small hole NGG /mbamba/ crab's hole; hollow in a tree; a large cave #collapse, #cave in (3) */ba9ba9/\4 collapse, cave in WMP: AKL /ba9ba9/ fall down, cave in (such as sides of riverbank) TAE' /bamba9/ collapse, fall down #fish sp. (2) */ba9ba9/\5 fish sp. WMP: BJR /bamba9-an/ kind of marine fish NgD /bamba9/ a saltwater fish that is about five feet long and very slender NIAS /baba/ fish sp. BAL /ba9ba9/ species of large sea fish (8) */mpampa/ fish sp. OC: FIG /baba/ large fish, like a snake, with a large mouth SAM /papa/ a fish (%Epinephelus% sp.), grouper NOTE: Possibly also NGG_/papa/ (OG) `sp. of fish', NUK_/baba/ `squirrelfish'. #loud, #resound, #sound (1) */ba9ba9/\6 loud resounding sound F: PAI /b-al_-a9ba9/ have sound as of rain falling on roof, or beating on tin can WMP: ISG /b-al-a9pa9/ onomatopoetic word for gong used in /hudhu'd/ chant CHM /p-al-a9pa9/ loud noise, fall down (noisily) CMP: SIKA /baba9/ loud (noise) NOTE: With probable root */-ba9/ `dull resounding sound'. #notch (3) */ba9ba9/\7 notch, as in a tree that has been cut prior to felling WMP: TIR /ba9ba9/ notch NgD /bamba9/ something that is hewed out (wood from a tree; both the piece of wood that is removed and the notch in the tree are called /bamba9/) NOTE: In the absence of corroboration from other Oceanic languages the resemblance of HWN_/waha/ `square notch cut in the upper part of house posts, in which the wall plates (/lohelau/) were placed' to the above forms is best regarded as fortuitous. #red, #discolored, #bruise (3) */ba9ba9/\8 reddish; discolored, as the skin over a bruise WMP: MAR /ba9ba9/ bruise ACH /bamba9/ red, yellow, jaundiced SND /ba9ba9/ white, of the skin, with a somewhat dark reddish tint OJ /ba9ba9/ red NOTE: Also BAL_/ba9/ `red, red-brown', SAS_/aba9/ `red'. This term probably referred to discolorations of the skin. #embankment (3) */ba9ba9(-an)/ embankment dbl. */pa9pa9/ WMP: ILK /ba9ba'9-an/ to hill, raise a heap of earth above the roots of a row of plants (usually by means of a plow) AKL /ba'9ba9/ fall down, cave in (as sides of a riverbank) KAY /beba9an/ steep riverbank, steep hillside #putrid #odor, #stench (3) */ba9(e)haw/ having a putrid smell WMP: CEB /ba9ha'w/ having the sour smell which develops in cooking starches which are waterlogged, e.g. corn which has been ground without being fully dried, yams which got waterlogged in rain-soaked ground, etc. MAL /ba9au/ putrid #tusk, #canine #tooth (1) */ba9eliS/ tusk; canine tooth F: KAV /ba9ris/ tusk, fang WMP: KEL /be9elih/ canine tooth, tusk #rotten #smell, #stench (1) */ba9(e)qeR/ rotten smell, stench F: PAZ /tu-ba9er/ rotten WMP: ILK /ba9ar/ tree with rank-smelling flowers: %Sterculia foetida% " /ba9?e'g/ stench of rotten wood CEB /ba9?ug/ foul smell of liquids that have stagnated, or of food that has spoiled MIRI /ba9ar/ smell of river mud at low tide, or of a swamp MAL /ba9ar/ putrid, as stagnant water or decaying animal matter JAV /ba9er/ stench, stinking SAS /ba9er/ stale smell, stench (of water) PM */ba96h/ smell bad CMP: MGG /ba9er/ musty, stale NOTE: Also BUSANG_/ba9e'?/ `spoiled (of food), rancid (of oil)'. Reconstructed as */ba9er/ `stench' in Blust_(1973) where, however, only WMP reflexes are cited. #smell (2) */ba9(e)qes/ unpleasant smell WMP: BON /ba9?es/ to have spoiled, as cooked rice, vegetables or cooked meat BAL /ba9es/ noisome, unpleasant in smell or taste CMP: MGG /ba9es/ beginning to smell badly, mawkish, foul (smell) NOTE: Also KAN_/la9?es/ `smelling of fish'. #fragrant (1) */ba9(e)SiS/ fragrant F: KAV /ba9sis/ fragrant WMP: ILK /ba9?i'/ to smell of toast CHAM /ba9i/ used of all agreeable sensations: good, tasty, redolant, etc. SIM /fa9i/ odor, fragrance OJ /wa9i/ fragrance CMP: NGA /va9i/ to smell (badly) NOTE: Based on the comparison TAG_/ba9i'/ `broiling', JAV_/ba9i/ `bait', /wa9i/ `fragrance', SAM_/pa9i/ `bait' Dempwolff_(1938) reconstructed */ba9i/ `fragrance'. However, in so doing he appears to have brought together forms that belong to several distinct cognate sets (cf. */ba9i/ `bait' and */ba9i/ `cook over a fire'). #bait (2) */ba9i/\1 bait WMP: JAV /ba9i/ bait OC: SAM /pa9i/ coconut bait for flying fish #cook (2) */ba9i/\2 cook over a fire WMP: TAG /ba9i'/ broiling CMP: BURU /ba9i-h/ heat over a fire NOTE: Dempwolff_(1938) includes TAG_/ba9i'/ under */ba9i/ `fragrance', but the present comparison provides a better semantic fit. #bite (3) */ba9iq/ to bite WMP: MAR /ba9i?/ to bite PAL /ba9ch/ to bite #cruel (3) */ba9is/ cruel dsj. */be9is/ WMP: CEB /ba9i's/ fierce; cruel MIN /ba9is/ cruel, hard #share, #portion, #inherit, #allot, #divide (2) */baqagi/ share, portion, inheritance; to allot, divide property WMP: ILK /ba'gi/ share, portion, part, lot NgD /bagi/ part, share, portion IBAN /bagi/ share, part; divide, distinguish; divide /bilik/ property after a death and allot the shares equally to the survivors MAL /bahagi/, /bagi/ to mete out; to apportion; to deal (cards) " /bahagi-an/ share KB /bagi/ divide, split, share; portion TB /bagi/ part, share, portion SND /bagi/ share, portion JAV /bagi/ part, portion, share SAS /bagi/ part, portion, share " /bagi-an/ share; inheritance BAR /mo-bagi/ divide, share out TAE' /ba?gi/ part, portion, share of the property of the (deceased) parents CMP: MGG /bagi/, /bahi/ divide, share out NGA /bagi/ part, share, portion; divide, allot SAVU /b^agi/ divide, allot SIKA /bagi/ division of the inheritance SHWNG: WAR /bage/ part, share NOTE: Also MAR_/bagi?/ `divide, distribute, share', /bagi?-an/ `share, portion, belong to, fate', SND_/bage/ `share, portion', SAN_/bahage-a9/ `share', SAVU_/bage/ `divide, allot'. Dempwolff_(1934-38) reconstructed */bagi/, but marked it as a Sanskrit loan. A similar interpretation of SAS_/bagi/ is found in Goris_(1938). However, Wilkinson_(1959) does not mark MAL_/bagi/, /bahagi/ as a loan, and the form is conspicuously absent in Old Javanese. Moreover, the agreement of TAE'_/-?C-/ with MAL_/-haC-/ parallels a correspondence in an indisputably native form: TAE'_/ba?ru/, MAL_/baharu/ `new'. The quality of the deleted vowel in this word evidently differed from that in */baqeRu/ (*/baqeRu/ > /baharu/ ~ /bahru/ ~ /baru/, but */baqegi/ > /bahagi/, /bagi/ without a variant **/bahgi/). Dempwolff's interpretation appears to be based on the assumption that this form derives from SKT_/bha_gya/ `good fortune, luck' (see `Loans and convergent developments'). Indeed a confusion of these two words (MAL_/bahagi/, /bagi/ `mete out, apportion', and /bahagia/ `good fortune sent by God') is apparent in some languages: e.g. MAR_/bagi?-an/ `share, portion, belong to, fate', where the native Malay word and the Sanskrit loan are both borrowed (from Malay) and treated as a single polysemous form, presumably on the notion that one's inheritance equals one's fortune or fate. Although this word appears to be native in Malay, Tae', and some other languages, part of the attested distribution, including the forms in Maranao, Sangir, and perhaps all CEMP languages, probably is due to borrowing from Malay. #split, #break (2) */baqak/ split, break off WMP: TAG /ba?a'k/ split, halved BKL /ba'?ak/ crevice, fissure, rift AKL /ba'?ak/ cut bamboo lengthwise BGG /baak/ break off, broken off CMP: MGG /wa?ak/ cut with a machete (banana shoots, etc.) SIKA /baak/ fall down, of branches; fall off #split (2) */baqas/ split lengthwise WMP: WBM /ba?as/ half a carcass; to split a carcass lengthwise (8) */paqas/ split lengthwise OC: TON /fa?a/ tear, rend " /fa?a-hi/ side, half -- when the division is made lengthwise NAN /ma-faa/ be broken (coconut, head, cup, canoe); be split " /faai/ break an object, such as coconut, head, canoe REN /ha?a(-sia/) cracked " /ha-ha?a/ a slice, cut off, sever, split; to crack, as a coconut MAO /wa_-hi/ (expected **/wha_hi/) break, split; part, portion HWN /wa_-hi/ (expected **/ha_hi/) cleave, split NOTE: Possibly also SAM_/fasi/ (with unexplained loss of vowel length) `kill (an animal), slaughter', /ma-fasi/ `(of the skin), be cracked, split' (Pratt: /fa_si/ `to split'). The Tongan, Nanumea, Rennellese, and Samoan forms are assigned to PPN_*/fa?a-si/ (Biggs,_Walsh,_and_Waqa_1970). This comparison may be fortuitous, as no support other than WBM_/ba?as/ has yet been found outside the Polynesian subgroup. #mouth, #speak, #say, #opening (2) */baqbaq/ mouth, opening; speak, say dbl. */bahaq/, */beqbeq/ WMP: AKL /ba'?ba?/ mouth CEB /ba'?ba?/ mouth; any mouth-like opening TBW(A) /ba?ba?/ mouth MALOH /baba?/ mouth MLG /vava/ mouth; fig. speech KB /babah/ mouth, beak, opening SIM /ba?ba/, /baba/ mouth, beak, opening OJ /babah/ door, gate, entrance, opening, aperture SND /babah/ stinking breath BGG /baba/ mouth " /mbamba/ door BAR /baba/, /bamba/ rivermouth TAE' /baba/ opening of a basket, quiver, cooking pot " /ba?ba/ door CMP: ROTI /bafa/ mouth, beak, orifice, opening; word, to say (metaphorical) LETI /wawa/ mouth SEL /haha/ mouth FOR /vava/ mouth (8) */papaq/ OC: LONIU /pWaha-/ mouth WAGAWAGA /baha/ speak LONGGU /vava/ speak MOTA /vava/ speak, say NUK /haha/ mouth odor MAO /waha/ mouth, entrance HWN /waha/ mouth; opening; inner surface of a bowl; open top of a canoe NOTE: In its literal sense as a body part term */baqbaq/ evidently referred both to the mouths of humans and to the mouths of animals (the beaks of birds being terminologically distinguished from these). In addition there are three other meanings (`speak, say', `door', and `breath') which appear in geographically separated reflexes. Since better candidates are available for two meanings these senses are perhaps best regarded as historically secondary developments, or as figurative usages in PMP or PWMP. Although no other candidate is available for the third meaning, it too is perhaps best treated as convergent. #water (3) */baqelu9/ small shallow body of water WMP: DGT /bal?o'9/ shallow well or hole (made in a riverbed to get clean water); to make a well TAG /ba'lo9/ spring of fresh water; flow of liquid from some hidden source; to spring forth, flow BI /balo9/ (expected **/balu9/) shallow pond SND /balo9/ (expected **/balu9/) pond (of medium size); swampy JAV /balo9/ (expected **/balu9/) low-lying land without drainage; marshy; pond (made for fish farming) NOTE: Caisguran Dumagat permits glottal stop only postconsonantally. The position of */q/ in this reconstruction is posited to explain the stress difference between the Dumagat and Tagalog forms. #new (1) */baqeRuh/, */ma-baqeRuh/ new F: KNB /va?u'ru/ (< A) new TSOU /farv-a/ new THAO /faql_u/ new BUN /baqlu/ new FAV /bado/ unmarried young man AMIS /fa?loh/ new; renew PAI /vaqu-an/ new (2) */{??}/ new, fresh; recent(ly); youth, bachelor WMP: ITB /va?yu/ (expected **/va?yuh/) new, recent; neophyte, novice ISG /baxo'/ new, fresh " /bag-baxo/ young man, youth, handsome youth ITW /bahu/ new ILK /ba'go/ new; having been in some position or condition but a short time " /baro'/ new, fresh, modern, novel, recent; virgin (soil); young man, youth, bachelor BON /balo'/ new; unmarried man, youth KAN /balo'/ young man; lad; youngster; youth; bachelor " /bal-balo'/ handsome; beautiful young man IFG /ballu'/ newly ripe rice; young person married or not, who has the characteristics of not being old " /balo'/, /bal-balo'/ young; young man not yet married DGT /ba'gu/ before, earlier than, in advance PGS /ba'lo/ new KAP /ba'yu/ new, newly, before TAG /ba'go/ new, recent(ly) BKL /ba'go/ before " /ba?go'/ before (in time); new HAN /ba'g?u/ new; just, recently, freshly " /bag?u'/ before, earlier than HLG /bagu'/, /bag?u'/ before; new AKL /bago'/ before, prior to " /bag?o'(h)/ new; recently CEB /bag?u'/ new; modern; recently, just now BTK /ba?go/ new WBM /begu/ new; recent MAR /bago/ renew, reinforce, revise " /bago-bago/ most recently, newest " /bego/ new; renew, increase energy or speed KAD /vagu/ new, again, anew LD /me-beruh/ new KEL /beruh/ new; just now BIN /vaw/ new BALINGIAN /bahew/ new MUK /ba?ew/ new IBAN /baru/ new, modern; anew, again; just (now) MAL /baharu/, /bahru/, /baru/ new; fresh; now at last JAR /pehrew/ new MOK /k6loy/ new ACH /baro_/ new; just, just now; first " /baro`e"/ yesterday NIAS /bohou/ new, recent " /mam-bohou/ renew MENT /bau/ new; fresh (eggs) KB /baru/ new; just, just now TB /baru/ new REJ /belew/ new SND /bahayu/ recent(ly) " /baru/ new, fresh (Malay loan) JAV (Kromo) /wau/ the aforesaid; just now JAV (Ngoko) /mau/ the aforesaid; just now " /baru/ new BAL /bahu/ new; newly, just now " /wahu/ just, just now SAS /baru/ new " /baru?/ recently, just past BM /bagu/ just now " /mo-bagu/ new GOR /bohu/ new BAR /wo?u/ also, still, again; new MDR /baru/ new; fresh TAE' /ba?ru/ new CHM /pa?go/ now, today PAL /beche's/ new CMP: BIMA /b^ou/ new MGG /weru/ new, recently RMB /waru/ just now; the foregoing LETI /waru/ new BURU /fehu-t/ new SHWNG: BULI /po/ new; recently S-L /va-voru/ new WND /ba-boru/ new KUR /woru/ new (8) */paqoRu/, */paqoRu-na/ new; recent */ntau (m)paqoRu/ youth, young person OC: MUS /ou-na/ new MOTU /tau-hau/ a youth BWAI /vagu/ new " /e-vagu-na/ new (of everything but food); recently, newly " /si-vagu-na/ new, freshly gathered (of food) MISIMA /va-valu-na/ new MONO /haolu-na/ new CH /valu/ new TALISE /vaolu-na/ new NGG /vaolu/ new; young, fresh, beautiful, in one's prime; renew LONGGU /vaolu/ new " /va-vaolu/ renew LAU /fa_lu/ new, fresh; recent KWAIO /foolu/ young; new; renew; right away, at the same time; for the first time AA /haoru/ new, fresh, young " /ma_ne haoru/ a young unmarried man, a newcomer " /keni haoru/ a marriageable girl SAA /haolu/ new, fresh ARS /haoru/ new, fresh WOLEAI /feo/ new; cleaned PUL /fe'/ young as plants; new NGUNA /vau/ new FIJ /vou/ new; newly, recently " /caura-vou/ a youth, young man of marriageable age TON /fo?ou/ new, fresh; strange, unfamiliar " /ta_u-po?ou/ virgin, maiden; nun; virginity SAM /fo_u/ new; fresh; renew; restore, repair " /ta_u-pou/ title of village maiden (virgin singled out for her charm, looks and manners) REN /ho?ou/ new, fresh; recently, for the first time HWN /hou/ new, fresh, recent; again, more NOTE: Also TAR_/bulax/ `new, fresh', GED_/fau-n/ `new, young, fresh; again, once more, anew, afresh', MANAM_/wa-wau/, KEHERARA_/wou-na/, WEDAU_/vou-na/, MUKAWA_/wau-na/ `new'. A number of languages in western Melanesia appear to reflect POC_*/paqou/ rather than */paqoRu/. The following additional points are noteworthy: (1) In PMP the bare stem */baqeRu/ may have been used adverbially, and perhaps as a noun meaning `youth, young people in the prime of life'; the same stem prefixed with */ma-/ clearly meant `new; fresh' (cf. Pawley_1982 for related claims based on the evidence in Oceanic languages). In POC, on the other hand, the */ma-/ prefix, which had been fossilized in such forms as */ma-sakit/ `painful, sick' and */ma-takut/ `afraid', was disassociated from this morpheme. In its place the POC adjectival suffix */na-/ was added (hence: POC_*/paqoRu-na/). (2) Some languages in Indonesia show both a native form and a coexisting loan from Malay, which may differ somewhat in meaning (e.g. MAK_/beru/ `new, fresh, not yet accustomed to something; just now' next to the Malay loan /baru?/ `new'. (3) A number of MP languages have an apparent reflex of */e/ rather than */a/ in the first syllable of this word (MAR_/bego/, REJ_/belew/, MAK_/beru/, MGG_/weru/, BURU_/fehu-t/, S-L_/va-voru/). These items are assumed to show regular reflexes of the unusual sequence */-aqe-/ preceding the last syllable of the word (as LD_/me-beruh/, KEL_/beruh/ clearly do). (4) Some SHWNG languages (e.g. WND_/ba-boru/) and some OC languages (e.g. MISIMA_/va-valu-na/) agree in reflecting what appears to be a partially reduplicated form PEMP_*/ba-baqoRu/. On present evidence it is unclear whether such a morphological variant existed in PEMP, or whether the observed agreements are products of convergent innovation. #trigger, #trap (3) */baquR/ trigger of a tension-set trap WMP: ILK /baor/ noose and switch (extensively used in automatic snares) MAR /ba?og-a?/ spring of animal trap BISAYA BUKIT /baug jarat/ wooden trigger of a noose trap KEL /ba?ur/ fishing pole; trip stick in a noose trap NOTE: Also MAR_/baog-an/ `trigger of trap', TIR_/bawer/ `the tension spring of a snare-type trap'. Dempwolff_(1924-25) reconstructed */baqeR/ `spring of a trap', but cited little supporting evidence. #pen (2) */bara/\1 pen see */bala/\2 #beam, #house (2) */bara/\2, */barabara/ support beams in a house {??} dbl. */barat/, */baRat/ WMP: TBL /bala/ supporting poles for a house ACH /bara/ horizontal tie-beams in a house SIM /bara/ architrave of a house, the horizontal support beams on the front and back sides of the house NIAS /bara-bara/ crossbeams CMP: YMD /bare/ the two crossbeams in a Tanimbarese house which project from the entrance, and are longer than the others (8) */mpara/ {??} OC: DOBU /bara-bara/ across MOL /bala-bala/ put crosswise NOTE: Also EDDY_/palapala/ `horizontal supports of a roof, resting on the center posts'. Assumed to be distinct from */barat/\1 or */baRat/ `crossbeam', since final */t/ should be reflected as a stop in Yamdena, Dobuan, and Molima. #whatever (?) */bara/\3 whatever, whichever see */bala/\3 #boat (3a) */bara9gay/ communal boat dbl. */bara9a'y/ WMP: ILK /bara9ga'y/ section of a municipality or barrio AKL /bara'9gay/ native boats -- of historical import, which brought the first Malaysian settlers; club, group, organization #ember, #coal (2) */baRah hapuy/ ember, glowing coal WMP: IBAN /api bara?/ (`smouldering fire') praise name of Ngelingkan, ancestor of /Tuang/ of Ulu Klauh and /Pengulu/ Ngali of Delok, whose remains are kept in the house at Engkramut MAL /bara api/ ember, live coal CMP: SIKA /api wara-9/ glowing coals KEI /yaf wara-n/ glowing coals ASI /au hala/ ember NOTE: Also KMB_/wa`la epi/ `glowing coal'. #mollusk sp. (2) */baran/ mollusk sp. WMP: ILK /bara'n/ kind of small, edible, gastropodous freshwater mollusk with a rough shell MAL /baran-baran/, /be-baran/ a shell, sp. unident. CMP: KEI /arut baran-an/ kind of hammer shell: %Malleus vulgaris% NOTE: Geurtjens_(1921) lists KEI_/arut baranan/ under /arut/. There is no independent entry for /baranan/, but rather one for /bararan/ `shellfish', which is cross-referenced to /arut baranan/. I take /bararan/ to be a printer's error for the form correctly listed under /arut/. #fish sp. (3a) */baranba'n/ small marine fish WMP: ILK /baramba'n/ marine fish resembling the sardine; it is about 8 inches long and very fat; its meat is esteemed, but it is full of spines CEB /banban/, /balanba'n/ kind of halfbeak: %Hemirhamphus% sp. NOTE: Possibly */b-ar-anban/. #indefinite, #if, #perhaps, #hopefully; #or (2) */bara9/ marker of indefiniteness: if, perhaps, hopefully; or WMP: ISG /ba'ra9/ a conjunction: if perhaps, haply, let us hope BON /ba'la9/ take anything, not be particular KAN /ba'la9/ provided; it is to be seen if, we will see if, it is to be hoped that, we will hope that (used only in tales) HAN /ba'ra9/ perhaps; expressing uncertainty or suspicion IBAN /bara9/ any; about; whatever, however " /bara9-kali/ perhaps MAL /bara9 apa/ whatever " /bara9-kali/ perhaps MAL (Jkt) /bara9/ approximately, more or less ACH /bara9/ ordinary, everyday; gives a general sense to: whoever, whichever KB /bara9/ perhaps; as well as; also used verbally TB /bara9/ or; if; introduces indirect questions DPB /bara9/ or; some; whoever, whatever OJ /bara9/ anything which, whatever, just any(-body); just as it comes, just anyhow, indiscriminately, without further thought, without sufficient cause; at any time, continually JAV /bara9/ ... or something ..., ... or anything ..., and things like that; whatever, anything UMA /ba/, /bara/ or, perhaps BAR /bara/ particle of indefiniteness; perhaps, sometimes; also disjunctive: or, evasive TAE' /bara9/ particle that gives the following word an indefinite sense; it is also used independently as a verb " /bara9 apa/ all that belongs to a person, possessions MAK /bara9/ particle that indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness with regard to an action or a thing, thus: perhaps, possible; also the expression of a wish: hopefully CMP: MGG /bara9/ perhaps " /bara9-kani/ belongings, possessions RMB /bara9/ suppose; perhaps; possible (8) */mpara9/ {??} OC: RAL /bara/ perhaps (always placed at the end of the sentence) KWAIO /bala/ indiscriminately, unselectively, perhaps, maybe (but Keesing gives this as ``Modern'') NOTE: KEN_/bara9/ `only', SND_/bara9/ `when, at the moment' may be related, but RAR_/paa/ `perhaps, possibly, may be' appears to be a chance resemblance. This lexical item evidently was an important sentence modifier in PMP. In at least PWMP it probably also had some verbal uses, as it does in Karo Batak and Tae', among attested languages. Finally, although the Malay word /bara9/ (or /bara9-bara9/) `possessions, belongings' has been widely distributed in Indonesia as a result of borrowing TAE'_/bara9 apa/ `all that belongs to a person, possessions', MGG_/bara9-kani/ `belongings, possessions' suggest that the word may have been found in PMP as some kind of compound expression. Whether the element */bara9/ in this expression should be considered the same morpheme as the sentence modifier */bara9/ is a moot point. #banana (3) */bara9an/\1, */bara9en/ banana sp. WMP: ISG /bara9an/ one of the most esteemed varieties of bananas: %Musa sapientum L.% ILK /bana'9ar/ (< M) banana variety TAE' /punti bara9an/ banana sp. with fruits that are of medium size and speckled black MAK /unti bara9e9/ banana sp. #tree (3) */bara9an/\2 fruit tree WMP: IBAN /bera9an/ small trees yielding a small chestnut: %Castanopsis% spp. MAL /bera9an/ generic for chestnuts and oaks: %Quercus% spp., %Castanopsis% spp., %Pasania% spp. TB /bara9an/ tree with edible fruits DPB /bara9an/ turpentine fruit BAR /bara9a/ a small, aromatic citrus fruit the juice of which is used in food preparation and as a shampoo: %Citrus acida% #rat-weed, #arsenic (3) */bara9an/\3, */bara9en/ rat-weed, arsenic WMP: MAL /bera9an/ sulphide of arsenic; white arsenical oxide (used as rat poison) JAV /wara9an/ rat-weed, arsenic SAS /bara9an/ rat-weed BGS /wara9e9/ rat-weed, arsenic MAK /bara9e9/ rat-weed, arsenic NOTE: Possibly a loan distribution. However, if the South Sulawesi forms are borrowed from Malay or Javanese the last vowel is unexplained. #boat (3) */bara9ay/ kind of large boat WMP: ILK /bara9a'y/ boat, ship ISG /bara9a'y/ canoe ITW /bara9a'y/ canoe TAG /bala'9ay/ community of families; local branch or lodge of a society or fraternity; boat with 12 to 16 rowers BKL /bara'9ay/ division of a municipality, hamlet; medium-size boat AKL /bara'9gay/ (-g- unexplained) native boats -- of historical import, which brought the first Malaysian settlers; club, group, organization CEB /bala'9ay/ barrio, the smallest unit of self-government; kind of large boat MAR /bara9ai/ boat IBAN /bera9ai/ war boat, esp. the `boat' in which the souls of the dead travel the Mandai River MAL /bera9ai/ a piratical /prahu/ furnished with grapnel and boarding-gangways to attack becalmed or anchored ships NOTE: Also ILK_/bara9ga'y/ `section of a municipality or barrio'. In Blust_(1970) I suggested `communal boat' as a gloss for this form. However, all that can clearly be inferred from the glosses of the genetically most distant reflexes (Iban and Malay vs. the Philippine forms) is that */bara9ay/ referred to a large boat. References to a residential unit or to a unit of social organization are confined to the Tagalic languages, and the irregular form in Ilokano, and so may be historically secondary. #disaster (2) */baraq/ disaster WMP: TAG /ba'la?/ threat " /ba-ba'la?/ portent, as of storm; warning notice MAR /bara-bara?/ to court disaster CMP: NGA /vara/ misfortune, disaster #reciprocate (3) */baras/ reciprocate good or evil dbl. */bales/ WMP: MAR /baras/ sorrow, retribution TIR /baras/ give some reward for past efforts, beyond any agreed compensation SGH /baras/ retribution #sound, #splash, #water (3) */barasbas/ sound of splashing water WMP: ILK /barasa'bas/ sound of heavy rain, of a jet of water, etc. OJ /barabas/ streaming MAK /barabasa?/ fall suddenly and in a great quality (of fruit, leaves, rain) CHM /palaspas/ splash (as a fish in the water) NOTE: Mills_(1975), citing Matthes_(1859), gives MAK_/bara?basa?/ `to rain in'. This item may be the same morpheme as */basbas/\2 `sprinkle'. #cross#beam (1) */barat/\1, */baRat/ crossbeam F: AMIS /falat/ crossbeam in a house; horizontal, as opposed to vertical WMP: NgD /bahat/ crossbeam TB /barat/ transverse, oblique; across, athwart, at an angle (as defective eye alignment) DPB /barat/ athwart or across (as a barrier) NIAS /bara-bara/ crossbeam " /ba-bara/ lie across PM */barat/ at an angle, slanting BM /barat-an/ crossbeam for an outrigger TAE' /bara?/ two long beams of the house BGS /ware?/ athwart, across MAK /barat-a9/ bamboo outrigger connectors WOL /barat-a/ binding for outrigger float CMP: ROTI /ba/ lie crosswise, as a log across the road (8) */(m)paRat/ {??} OC: RAL (Nodup dial.) /barat/ the piece of timber across the rafters of a house running parallel with the ridge and the wall plate NGG /va-vala/, /vala-vala/ crosswise " /gai vavala/ a cross LAU /bara/ shelf for firewood crosswise (lengthwise: /gwegwela/) NOTE: Also KEI_/wa_r/ `cross-sticks to which the outriggers are attached'. MOTA_/varat/ `the purlings of a house' may reflect a suffixed form */barat-an/. #tree (3a) */barat/\2 tree sp. WMP: ISG /barat/ forest tree whose flowers are much frequented by bees BM /barat/ blossoming tree NOTE: Perhaps also MGG_/warat/ `small tree found in damp places', WAR_/bara/ `tree sp.'. #tree (3) */baraya9/ or (3a) */baraye9/ tree sp. {?? or} WMP: ISG /bara'ya9/ forest tree with entire, oval leaves; its white flowers are mixed with the juice of the sugarcane in brewing /ba'si/ (rum) HAN /bara'yu9/ tree sp.; the roots are mixed with those of /la'gis/ (%Ficus% sp.) in brewing a decoction for allaying stomach pains CEB /bala'ya9/ large hardwood tree with short trunk and large branches MAK /baraya9/ tree with partly upward- and partly downward-turning branches #spread, #unfurl (2) */barbar/ spread out, unfurl WMP: MAL /babar/ expansion, opening out (of booming out a sail, spreading road-metal over the roadway, a shoal of fish dispersing over a large space, etc.) OJ /babar/ spread out, unfold, open (tr.), unfold, open (intr.) MAK /ba?bara?/ unfurl, as a sail CMP: RMB /babar/ expansion, spreading out (as a carpet, or a net to dry) NOTE: The limited distribution of this proposed cognate set raises questions about its validity. RMB_/babar/ could be a Malay loan, but if so it is puzzling that other languages in the Lesser Sundas have not borrowed the same word. MAK_/ba?bara?/, on the other hand, could have been borrowed from Malay only before heterorganic consonant clusters were simplified in the latter language. A possible, though still isolated Oceanic cognate is ARS_/hari/ (< */hahar-i/?) `spread out, as a mat'. #striped, #streaked (2) */barik/ striped, streaked WMP: MAL /bare'k/ veined; marbled; mottled (in tint or shade rather than color) BGS /bari?/ multicolored, as with black and white stripes MAK /bari?/ grain (in wood), spots (of civet cat or panther), stripes (of tiger) CMP: MGG /barik/ striped, streaked NOTE: With root */-rik/ `spot, freckle'. Part of this comparison was first noted in print by Verheijen_(1967). #duck, #%Dendrocygna% (3) */bariwis/ wild duck: %Dendrocygna% sp. dsj. */baliwis/ WMP: TAG /baliwi's/ kind of wild duck NgD /bariwis/ wild duck (tame is /itik/) NOTE: Also MAL_/belibis/ `the whistling teal: %Dendrocygna javanica%', BAL_/blibis/, /meliwis/ `teal, small duck'. This is a puzzling and frustrating comparison. Dempwolff_(1938) compared the Tagalog, Ngaju Dayak and Malay forms cited here, along with JAV_/meliwis/ (a form which I find neither in Pigeaud_1938 nor in Zoetmulder_1982), and reconstructed */baliwis/ `wild duck'. However, under his reconstruction no two forms are regular (irregularities include NgD_/-r-/, MAL_/-b-/, and JAV_/m-/). The present reconstruction has the merit of reconciling the Tagalog and Ngaju Dayak forms, but leaves the reflex of */r/ irregular both in Malay and in Balinese. A fairly thorough search for other reflexes which might resolve some of these problems has produced no results. If this form is not a local innovation which has been spread by borrowing, it is puzzling why no other reflexes have been uncovered. On the other hand, if it is a local innovation the most likely route of diffusion would be from Malay into Tagalog, yet the disagreement of MAL_/-b-/, TAG_/-w-/ argues against this interpretation. Standard ornithological sources such as Peters_(1931-1951) indicate that three species of whistling ducks are widespread in the Austronesian world: %Dendrocygna arcuata%, %D. javanica%, and %D. guttata%. There is thus no a priori reason to suspect that this form is a loan from a non-Austronesian source. #building (3) */baruga/ kind of building WMP: OJ /waruga/ kind of building (``bale''? hall, /pendopo?/). It seems to be part of the housing of persons of distinction and a tax can be levied on it SAN /bahugha/ small house built on a grave PM */baruga/ stone house-shaped tomb MAK /baruga/ bamboo shed on piles for festive gatherings WOL /baruga/ meeting-hall, assembly-hall, council-room NOTE: KOM_/baruga/ `tent, provisional building' is assumed to be a loan, probably from Makasarese. #fungus, #tinder (2) */baruk/ fungus that grows on the sugar palm; tinder WMP: YAMI /barok/ a tree: %Zanthoxylum integrifolium Merrill%. A cotton-like fiber obtained from the root is used to caulk boats, and as tinder in starting fires (Kano_&_Segawa_1956) ITB /varuk/ a plant (%Butaceae%, %Zanthoxylum integrifolium Merrill%), used as caulking material in boats HAN /baru'k/ tinder made from bamboo shavings CEB /ba'luk/ layer of fluffy fibrous material that sticks to the lower end of the palm frond, used as a compress for open wounds or tinder; tinder consisting of this material and charred coconut husks MAL /rabok/ (< M) tinder; touchwood (usually soft dusty material found in bamboo, and inflammable) BM /bayuk/ tinder, fungus TAE' /baruk/ small gray fungus on the lower end of the leaf spine of the sugar palm, used in starting a fire; tinder CMP: SEL /baruk/ fungus that grows on the sugar palm BURU /baru-t/ a fibre that grows on the trunk of the /tuat/ tree, used for kindling and caulking NOTE: Also PS_*/baduk/ `tinder' (cf. RATAHAN_/baruk/ `powder from palm fronds used for caulking boats or as tinder'), BURU_/palu/ `furry brown fibre that grows on the trunk of %Arenga saccharifera% palms'. Zorc (n.d.:23) gives PPH_*/bahuk/ `tinder'; Zorc_(1979:37) gives Proto-Southern_Philippines_*/baDuk/ `tinder; thin-shreds'. MAL_/rabok/ may reflect */Rabuk/, with root */-buk/ `dust'. #creeper (3) */barunus/ kind of creeper WMP: CEB /balunus/ forest liana, the bark of which is used as shampoo: %Entada phaseolides% MAL /berunus/ a creeper: %Aeschynanthus radicans% #bandage, #wrapping (3) */barut/ bandage, wrapping dbl. */balut/ WMP: ILK /ba'rut/ wire TAG /ba'lot/ covering, wrapping MAL /barut/ bandaging, long wrapper or bandage NIAS /baru/ jacket, coat, clothing OJ /b-in-arut/ swaddled NOTE: OJ_/b-in-arut/ is cited under /barut/. #canoe (3) */barutu/ type of canoe WMP: PAL /beroto'9/ large canoe #hand, #arm (2) */baRa/\1 hand, arm WMP: BALINGIAN /baha/ hand, arm CMP: SUB-AMBON */vala/ hand BURU /faha/ hand, arm SOB /faha/ hand, arm SHWNG: S-L /wara/ hand MUNGGUI /bara/ hand BIAK /bra/ hand IRARUTU /fra/ hand WND /vara/ hand (8) */paRa/ hand OC: LETEMBOI /na-vara-9/ hand VARTAVO /vara-9k/ hand ORAP /vra-k/ hand RANON /wera-9/ hand LNW /va:/ hand, arm " /vera-/ hand of, arm of NOTE: All OC reflexes of */baRa/ contain an obligatory possessive suffix; in addition LETEMBOI_/na-vara-9/ contains a reflex of the common noun article */na/. It is possible that all forms collected here should be assigned to */qabaRa/ `shoulder' (q.v.), with parallel semantic shifts that have created the illusion of an independent comparison. I regard this hypothesis as unlikely, but am hard-pressed to suggest how */baRa/ might have differed in meaning or function from the far better-attested */(qa)lima/ `hand, arm'. Finally, TAR_/baga/ `hand, arm' might be included in this comparison. PAN_*/R/ normally yields TAR_/l/ (*/baraq/ > /balaq/ `lung', */uRaC/ > /ulat/ `vein, tendon'), but appears to yield /g/ in */Rabi?i/ > /gabi-yan/ `evening'. Moreover, it is clear from the data in Li_(1981) that while PAN_*/R/ generally became /g/ in Atayal and /r/ in Seediq dialects, occasionally both languages reflect */R/ as /g/. Since TAR_/baga/ does not presently appear to be corroborated by cognate forms in other dialects of Seediq or Atayal, however, it is perhaps best to consider it provisionally as showing a chance resemblance to the forms cited under */baRa/. #pen (2) */baRa/\2 pen see */bala/\2 #ember, #coal (1) */baRah/ ember, glowing coal F: PA */bagah/ charcoal KNB /vaara/ embers SAR /vara?a/ charcoal PAZ /bahah/ (expected **/baxah/) charcoal PUY(T) /vaRa/ glowing embers (2) */baRah/ ember WMP: ITB /ma-vayah/ red " /vayah-en/ to heat red-hot ILK /ba'ra/ red-hot IFG /ba'la/ glowing fire without flames, red-hot fire DGT /ba'ga/ live coals KAP /ba'ya/ ember TAG /ba'ga/ glowing coal BKL /ba'ga/ embers HAN /ba'ga/ ember HLG /ba'ga/ ember AKL /ba'ga(h)/ glowing ember; be aglow, smoulder CEB /ba'ga/ embers; glow SUB /baga/ live coals MAR /baga/, /oaga/ ember, burning firewood, burn to red hotness WBM /baga/ ember, hot coal TIR /bara/ embers TBL /bala/ embers MIRI /bare'h/ hot ashes from a fire that has burned down KEL /bareh/ ember, glowing coal KAY /baha?/ glowing fire embers NgD /bahe/ glowing coals MAL /bara/ ember, live coals SIM /bala/, /fala/ glowing coal; red TB /bara/ brown color of horses and clothing DPB /bara/ red SND /bara/ hot ash, glowing coal or coals OJ /wa_/, /wa/ live coal, piece of burning material which is aglow JAV /wa-wa/ glowing coal BAL /baha/ glowing coal, a coal fire BM /baga/ glowing charcoal, glowing fire of coals BAR /waa/ glowing coals " /ka-waa/ redness, brown color MAK /bara/ glowing coal WOL /weo/ live coal, ember PAL /bas/ embers; burned pieces of wood CMP: MGG /wara/ ember RMB /wara/ ember; red SIKA /bara/ to burn (of fire) LAM /wa?a-n/ ember SEL /hara/ charcoal YMD /bare/, /bara-n/ glowing coal KEI /wara-n/ glowing coal, ember NOTE: Also NgD_(NSS)_/barah/ `glowing coals', IBAN_/bara?/ `smoulder, glow'; /bara?api/ `embers, glowing coals', SAS_/barak/ `glowing coal', BAR_/wea/ `glow of the fire'; /ma-wea/ `glowing', SOB_/fara-n~/ `glowing coal'. The reconstruction of */baRaq/ `red' in Blust_(1989) confuses a probable reflex of */baRah/ (GAD_/nali-baga/ `red') and a reflex of */baReq/ `abscess, swelling' (BAL_/bahah/ `swollen and red'). Although it appeared to be justified by the occurrence of a root */-Raq/ (seen also in */daRaq/ `blood' and */ma-iRaq/ `red'), this reconstruction has now been abandoned. #brave, #bold, #dare (2) */baRanih/ brave, bold; dare to do (3) */baRanih/ hero, war-leader; dare to do */ma-baRanih/ brave, bold, daring WMP: KAP /baya'ni/ valiant, brave, strong TAG /baya'ni/ (probably an early Kapampangan loan) hero; cooperation " /bayanih-a'n/ mutual aid AKL /baga'ni(h)/ hero, patriot " /bagani'h-an/ heroism, patriotism; heroes, patriots (collectively) MAR /bagani/ vim, vigor, anger " /bagani-a/ strong, vigorous, powerful " /ma-bagani/ brave MANDAYA (Lebar) /bagani/ headman (an office requiring evidence of personal valor, fortitude, physical strength and charisma; to become a /bagani/ a man had to kill seven to nine men in battle) MbA (Lebar) /bagani/ warrior (a man whose status was enhanced in accordance with the number of killings he could lay claim to) BAGOBO (Lebar) /bagani/, /magani/ brave men, warriors, a status of considerable prestige achieved by the taking of human life under culturally prescribed conditions NgD /han~i/ courage, valor, daring IBAN /berani/ daring, bold, brave, confident, adventurous, foolhardy MALOH /(ba)rani/ brave, courageous MAL /berani/ bravery; to dare; to venture MLG /ma-vany/ contemptuous, audacious TB /barani/ bold, daring, courageous REJ /biney/ brave, courageous; forward LPG /bani/ brave OJ /wa_ni/ courage, bravery, valor, prowess; to dare, daring, courageous, brave, valiant BAL /bani/ dare, to bold, venture SAN /bahani/ brave, courageous, daring; wild (of animals) GOR /buheli/ brave; to dare BM /bogani/ leader, commander, champion, hero, war chief (in former times), someone who dares to undertake something BGG /balani/ black magic " /barani/ (L) brave, courageous, daring; war leader; dare to do something BAR /wani/ give praise; boast " /tau po-wani/ a renowned person " /tali-wani/ magical means to bestow courage on someone TAE' /barani/ brave, daring, courageous " /pa?-barani/ hero, intrepid fighter, champion MDR /barani/ brave; to dare " /to-barani/ courageous person BGS /warani/ brave MAK /barani/ brave, daring " /tu-barani/ hero, champion CMP: MGG /rani/ cruel, brave, powerful; to fight, attack RMB /rani/ brave, angry; to attack, be angry with NGA /rani/ brave, fearless; noble, exalted SAVU /b^ani/ dare; courageous, brave KMB /mbeni/ (/mb-/ unexplained) brave, courageous, dare to do something; angry, malicious (8) */paRane/ brave, bold OC: ROV /varane/ brave, bold " /tie varane/ a brave man MSH /peran/ brave; courageous; bold; daring; heroic; undaunted; valiant; fearless NOTE: Also NGA_/bani/ `bold, daring, fearless; impudent; heroic; violent'. Dempwolff reconstructed */ba-Rani/ `fearless', cross-referenced to */Rani/ `courage, manliness'. However, the latter form is based solely on NgD_/han~i/ and the arbitrarily segmented final portion of FIJ_/ta9-ane/, FUTUNAN_/t-ane/ `man, male'. The optional Maloh form /rani/ and the similar obligatory forms in Ngaju Dayak and several languages of the Lesser Sundas (Manggarai, Rembong, Ngadha) are assumed to be sporadic reductions of */baRanih/. In PWMP this term apparently referred in particular to a culturally prescribed hero whose status was defined by exploits in war, probably involving the taking of human life. In PMP only the more general meaning `brave, fearless; to dare' can be justified. Finally, it is unclear from the isolated OC reflex whether the sporadic change */-i/ > //e// had already occurred in Proto-Oceanic, or whether it took place at some time between the break-up of POC and the emergence of Roviana as a distinct language. #lung (1) */baRaq/\1 lung F: TAR /balaq/ lung SAI /bL?/ lung KNB /vara?/ lung PR */ba?a/ lung PAZ /baxa?/ lung AMIS /fala?/ lung PUY(T) /vaRaH/ lung WMP: ISG /baxa'/ lung ITW /baha'/ lung ILK /bara'/ lung BON /bala'/ lung PGS /bala'/ lung KAP /baga'?/ lung TAG /ba'ga?/ lung BKL /baga'?/ lung HAN /ba'ga?/ lung AKL /ba'ga?/ lung CEB /ba'ga?/ lung MAR /baga?/ lung WBM /baga?/ lung TIR /baga?/ lung TBL /baga?/ lung SIM /bala/ lung; liver SND /bayah/ lung SAS (S{e@}wela dial.) /kebe-bara?/ lungs LAUJE /baga/ lungs TIALO /baga/ lungs CMP: SAVU /wa/ lung ROTI /ba/ lung (linked to the liver in formal dyadic language, or ritual parallelism; cf. Fox n.d.) DOBEL /bar/ lung (8) */paRaq/ {??} OC: MSH /yar/ lung MOK /poar/ lung PUL /fa'ra-wa/ lungs WOL /far-i-yawa/ lungs (/yawa/ = `mouth') NOTE: Also BUN_/bahaq/, PAI_/va/ `lungs'. The rich attestation of this form in Taiwan and the Philippines contrasts markedly with its rarity elsewhere. Known reflexes are entirely lacking in Borneo and Sulawesi, occur in only three WMP languages outside the Philippines, in only two CMP languages and in a single subgroup of OC languages (cf. Bender et al., n.d., PMC_*/fara/ `lungs'). The gemination in KAN_/balla'/ presumably is to be explained by the shortness of the preceding unstressed vowel (although such a conditioned change is not regular), while the Kapampangan, Hanuno'o, Tiruray, and Tagabili reflexes are Central Philippine loans. Among other irregularities, PAI_/va/, BTK_/baga'/ `lungs' suggest the need for a doublet */baRa/. However, contrary to Warren_(1959), Reid_(1971) gives BTK_/baga?/ `lungs'. On the other hand, Reid_(1971) lists MbI_/baha/ `lungs' without an expected final consonant, and Ho_(1978) shows that the lack of expected /-q/ is common to all five Paiwan dialects that he examines. For the present these are assumed to be independent irregularities, although it is possible that doublets */baRaq/, */baRa/ already existed in PAN. Finally, the independent testimony (also cp. DONDO, TOTOLI_/ate bula/ `lungs', KEL_/ate rua?/ `lungs') of Simalur and Rotinese suggests that a conceptual link between the lungs (associated with the breath = life force, soul) and the liver (= seat of the emotions and life) may have been present already in PMP. Whether such a link was encoded by a culturally prescribed dyadic set in ritual language (Fox_1974) or in some other way remains to be determined. #red (3) */baRaq/\2 red WMP: GAD /nali-baga/ red BAL /bahah/ swollen and red NOTE: Also ITB_/ma-vayah/ `red'. With root */-Raq/ `red'. This item apparently is distinct from */baRah/ `glowing ember'. #break, #fall apart, #scatter, #disperse (3) */baRbaR/ break up, fall into pieces, scatter, disperse WMP: DGT /bagbag/ overturn, come apart in rough sea (of a boat at sea) TAG /bagba'g/ broken up (soil, rock); shipwrecked BKL /bagba'g/ shipwrecked OJ /babar/ parted, scattered, rent asunder; to scatter, disperse BAL /bahbah/ shatter, scatter, fall to pieces; scattered, dispersed #abscess, #boil (n.), #swelling (1) */baReq/ abscess, boil, swelling on the body F: PUY(T) /vaReH/ to swell WMP: IFG /bala'/ ulceration, ulcer DGT /bage'/ swollen, inflamed (body part) TAG /baga'?/ abscess, tumor HAN /baga'?/ a bump or swelling as a result of a blow AKL /baga'?/ swollen, swelled up TIR /wara?/ abscess KEL /bara?/ swell, become swollen LA /baa?/ to swell; swollen LgLAB /bahe?/ to swell; swollen SARIKEI /bare?/ to swell; swollen NgD /baha/ abscess, boil, ulcer MLG /bay/, /vay/ wound, hurt, boil IBAN /barah/ abscess MAL /barah/ abscess (different from /bisul/ `external boil') SIM /fal6_(x)/ swollen KB /bareh/ abscess, swelling TB /baro/ abscess, swelling DPB /baroh/ abscess, swelling NIAS /bao/ swollen LPG /bayoh/ swollen SND /bareuh/ swollen, inflamed, ulcerated; swelling, inflammation OJ /a-boh/ swollen (of eyes, feet) JAV /woh/, /patek woh/ kind of persistent pustule BAL /bahah/ swollen and red, inflamed (of a wound) SAS /bara?/ swollen BM /baga?/ swell up; swollen up CHM /pago?/ irritate skin, cause skin irritation CMP: KOM /ba/ swollen MGG /bara/ swollen (of face, body, etc.) RMB /bara?/ swollen LIO /ba/ large boil YMD /bare/ swell, swell up FOR /bara/ swell, swell up KEI /ba_r/ swell, swell up (8) */mpaRoq/ a boil OC: FIJ /bo/ a boil NOTE: Also MUK_/baa/ `abscess, boil', IBAN_/barak/ `abscess, tumor, ulcer, boil', SIM_/xalo-halo/ `abscess, swelling', OJ_/barah/ `kind of leprous ulcer', JAV_/barah/ `leprosy'. #molar #tooth (2) */baReqa9/ molar tooth dbl. */bageqa9/, */beReqa9/ WMP: KEL /bera?a9/ molar tooth MLG /vazana/ double teeth, molars OJ /weha9/ jaw JAV /wa9/ jaw, jawbone (8) */paRa9/ {??} OC: ARS /hara/ mouth; jawbone; double tooth, molar NOTE: Also TIR_/bo?o9/, TBL_/bee9/, MAL_/geraham/, BAL_/bahem/ `molar tooth'. Medial */e/ in a trisyllable is retained in PAN_*/baqeRu/ > POC_*/paqoRu/ `new'. The suggested loss of PMP_*/e/ and reduction of the resulting consonant cluster in POC_*/paRa9/ `molar tooth' may indicate very specific conditions for deletion of */e/ between PMP and POC. Alternatively, the resemblance of ARS_/hara/ to phonetically and semantically similar forms in non-Oceanic languages may be due to chance. #lie, #deception (2) */baRiq/ lie, deception dsj. */bali/\4 WMP: MIRI /bari?/ lie, tell a lie CMP: PAU /hari-hari/ lie, deceive " /hari-hari-ne/ liar #typhoon (1) */baRiuS/ typhoon F: SAI /baLyo/ typhoon FAV /bayus/ storm AMIS /faliyos/ typhoon; monsoon winds and rain PUY(T) /vaRiw/ typhoon WMP: ILK /bagio'/ typhoon DGT /ba'gyo/ typhoon PGS /ba'gio/ storm, bad weather TAG /bagyo'/ storm BKL /bagyo'/ typhoon, hurricane, gale, storm, tempest HAN /bagyu'/ strong wind, storm, typhoon AKL /ba'gyo(h)/ hurricane, storm CEB /bagyu'/ typhoon SML /baliw/ wind MIRI /baruy/ (< M) wind KEL /bariw/ strong wind, storm wind KEN /baloy/ (< M) air, wind KAY /bahuy/ (< M) strong wind, storm CHM /pakyo/ typhoon, storm, tropical cyclone NOTE: Also ITW_/ba'ddyaw/ `typhoon'. MAL_/bayu/ `wind, breeze' and JAV_/bayu/ `wind, power', which were included in this cognate set in Blust_(1970) are now rejected. #spoil, #taint (2) */baRiw/ beginning to spoil, tainted (of food left uneaten too long) WMP: TIR /warey/ stale, spoiled TBL /bali/ spoiled, soured, rotten MUK /bayew/ old, as a dry coconut or and unmarried girl past her prime TB /bari/ foul-tasting, as rice; also the taste of something foul in the mouth SND /bari/ old, stale, cold (of foods which have stood around a long time), become sour, tainted JAV /wayu/ old, stale, having sat around too long SAS /bari/ old food that has begun to stink SAN /bahi/ to spoil, ferment (as grated coconut) MAK /bari/ sour, musty, of prepared foods that have been left standing too long (4) */baRi/ {??} CMP: BIMA /mbai/ rotten MGG /wari/ poisonous, dangerous KMB /mbai/ spoiled, musty (as rice) FOR /bari/ spoiling of foodstuffs KEI /ba_r/ be spoiled, of foods BURU /bahi/ spoiled, tainted NOTE: Also NgD_/bayo/ `spoiled', IBAN_/bari?/ `musty, ``gone off'' (as rice)'. Dempwolff_(1934-38) included MAL_/bari-bari/ `small fruit fly' (cp. IBAN_/bari/ `fruit flies, unident.', KB_/bari-bari/ `small red fly which gathers in swarms') in the same comparison, but this may be non-cognate. #parched, #dry (3) */baRtiq/ parched, bone-dry WMP: CEB /bagti'?/ bone-dry (as wood, earth) MAL /beras berte'h/ parched rice (much used in superstitious rites) TB /borti/ rice roasted in the husk NOTE: Dempwolff_(1934-38) reconstructed */be(t)iq/ `roasted rice', but based this etymon solely on the reflexes in Malay and Toba Batak. I assume that TB_/borti/ is a loan from Malay. #tree, #%Hibiscus tiliaceus% (2) */baRu/ a small shore tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% WMP: ITB /vayu/ fiber-producing tree: %Hibiscus gumamela% sp. ILK /bago'/ strips of bark for tying (s.t.) into bundles KAN /ba'go/ %Hibiscus tiliaceus% MAR /bago/ small tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus L.% NgD /baro/ middle-sized tree with very broad leaves; the bast fiber is used to make sewing material MLG /baro/, /varo/ a shrub or small tree from which a fiber used for string is obtained MAL /baru/ a sea-shore tree (%Hibiscus tiliaceus%) of which the bast yields a useful fibre OJ /waru/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% JAV /waru/ a certain hibiscus tree, the fibers of whose bark (/agel/) are used for making rope and sacking material SAN /bahu/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% MAK /baru/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% CHM /pagu/ a plant: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% CMP: RMB /waru/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% KMB /waru/ kind of hibiscus ERAI /hau/ hibiscus tree LETI /paru/ hibiscus tree BURU /fahu/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% PAU /haru/ a shore tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% SOB /bahu/ a plant: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% (8) */paRu/ %Hibiscus tiliaceus%, a tree the bark of which provides a fiber much used in making cordage; to lash, tie, bind OC: MAILU /waru/ wild cotton or hibiscus tree, affording fibre bark for rope, etc.; fibre from wild cotton tree GITUA /paru/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus%; bark used for rope, leaf used as cigar wrapper ROV /varu/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% PMC */kili-fau/ sea hibiscus: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% " */fau-fau/ tie, bind, lash MOTA /var/, /varu/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% ROT /hau/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% FIJ /vau/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% TON /fau/ a tree: giant hibiscus; fibre from the bark of the giant hibiscus SAM /fau/ a tree (%Hibiscus% sp.) the bast fibres of which are used in a variety of ways; bast fibre obtained from /fau/ and used widely as a tying and binding material, etc. REN /hau/ a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus L.% The fibre is used for rope, and the wood (on Bellona) for house posts MAO /whau/ a shrub: %Entelea arborescens%; a tree: %Nothopanax arboreum% to tie HWN /hau/ a lowland tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% ... Formerly the light, tough wood served for outriggers of canoes, the bast for rope, the sap and flowers for medicine NOTE: Also HAN_/ba?gu'/ `tree sp. (bast fibers from its bark used for making twisted bowstrings)'; IBAN_/baru? laut/ `common coastal trees yielding cord from the bark: %Hibiscus tiliaceus% and %Thespesia populnea Soland.%', MDR_/warru/ `a tree: %Hibiscus tiliaceus%'. The %Hibiscus tiliaceus% is a widely distributed and economically useful shrub or small tree. The similarly useful %Thespesia populnea% is sometimes represented by a reflex of */baRu/, but appears to have originally been represented by a distinct but very similar morpheme */balu/ (q.v.). In addition a number of dictionaries cite tree names that reflect */baRu/, but which in some cases may have no etymological connection with the present cognate set. Examples include PAI_/vau/ `%Blumea balsamifera% (leaves called /lamud/ used for covering tubers while cooking)', ISG_/ba'xo/ `tree suitable for the preparation of primitive beehives', IFG_/bagu'/ `kind of tree, the bark of which may serve as a provisional cloth or as a mat to sleep on', WBM_/bagu/ `small tree, prob. %Fagraea racemosa%', SIM_/balu/, /falu/, /tula9 balu/ `tree sp.', KB_/baru/ `plant resembling the /kurri/ (ramie, or hemp plant) the flowers of which stick like burrs to the clothes', SND_/waru/ `tree belonging to the willow family which yields a good timber', NGA_/varu/ `tree and gourd sp.', BURU_/bahu/ `a tree: %Shorea% sp.', BULI_/pai/ `tree sp.', MANAM_/paru/ `a tree: %Mangas Pid.% (leaf used for cigarettes)', NGG_/valu/ `tree sp.', AA_/haru/ `a shrub', ARS_/haru/ `tree sp.', and FIJ_/bau/ `tree with edible fruit and beautiful brownish-red wood, used to make canoes, boxes, etc.: %Sapotaceae% sp.'. The value of this plant as a source of cordage is reflected linguistically in two very distinct ways in OC languages: (1) In Proto-Micronesian the word for `hibiscus' reflects POC_*/kulit/ `skin, bark' + {POC}_*/baRu/, the name for the valuable bark having come to stand for the entire tree; (2) Proto-Micronesian_*/fau fau/ `tie, bind, lash'; FIJ_/vau/ `tie, bind', NIUE_/fau/ `construct by tying, bind together, lash', SAM_/fau/ `bind, lash together', KPA_/hau/ `lash, tie, construct', and similar verbs in other languages also appear to derive from */baRu/. We thus see two linguistic changes motivated by the economic uses of this tree, the first a semantic change based on synecdoche, the second a semantic-syntactic change based on the habitual association of an activity and a material. #bear (n.), #%Ursus malayanus% (3) */baRua9/, */biRua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% WMP: MAR /baroa9/ primitive, ape, bear (animal) KAD /bouva9/ (from earlier **/bauwa9/) bear PALUAN MURUT /baua9/ bear LD /berua9/ bear KEL /berua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% KEN /bua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% KAY /bua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Helarctus malayanus% LgT /kebi9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% KIP /belufie/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% BIN /beba9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% LAHANAN /buvwa9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% LONG GLAT (MODANG) /wahagu9/ bear PUNAN KELAI /wehgu9/ bear NgD /bahua9/ bear MNY /vayua9/ bear TABOYAN /bia9/ bear IBAN /berua9/ Malay (or Malayan Sun) Bear, ``Honey Bear'', %Helarctos% sp. BJR /birua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% MAL /berua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% MIN /birua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% KB /berua9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% OJ /barwa9/, /baro9/ the Malayan honey bear: %Ursus malayanus% BGS /barua9/ bear NOTE: This cognate set is geographically more restricted than most cognate sets that are attributed to PWMP. Reflexes of */baRua9/, */biRua9/, however, are widespread in Borneo and are clearly native, as they have sometimes undergone extensive sound changes which have not affected loans. This is particularly noticeable in languages that have strengthened non-phonemic transitional glides, as with LONG_GLAT_/wahagu9/ (where //g// reflects the intervocalic glide that was phonetically present between the vowels */-ua-/, which then metathesized), Kiput (where //f// reflects the similar glide), Bintulu (where */R/ disappeared, and from intermediate */bua9/ the same transitional glide was strengthened to //b// and the preceding */u/ centralized) and Long Terawan Berawan (where intervocalic */R/ became //k//, the first syllable was lost, and the strengthening of the phonetic glide and centralization of */u/ paralleled the development in Kiput). Indeed, the cognation of BIN_/beba9/ and particularly of LgT_/kebi9/ with e.g. MAL_/berua9/ is far from obvious, but is borne out by careful study of the sound correspondences. Dempwolff's_(1934-38) */ba(r)ua9/ can be disambiguated as containing */R/. Of the four languages that he compared (Ngaju Dayak, Malay, Toba Batak, and Javanese), the first two have merged all vocalic oppositions in prepenultimate position, TB_/barua9/ differs in meaning and may not be cognate, and JAV_/berua9/, like MAR_/baroa9/ and BGS_/barua9/, appears to be a Malay loanword. His unambiguous reconstruction of first-syllable */a/ was thus apparently an illusion. Both Banjarese and Minangkabau preserve the contrast of */a/ and */i/ in prepenultimate position (Adelaar_1985), and these witnesses agree in indicating */i/. The reflexes in Paluan Murut, Kadazan, and Lun Dayeh, on the other hand, indicate */a/. Finally, the first appearance of this word must date from at least the entry of the ancestral population of present-day Austronesian speakers into Borneo (hence to approximately the period 2,000-1,500 B.C.). It may, however, be considerably older. The bear, generally designated by a reflex of */Cumay/, is also found in Taiwan, but is absent in the intervening Philippines. In Southeast Asia it is found only on Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Since */Cumay/ and */baRua9/, */biRua9/ are not cognate, no inference can be made about a PAN word for `bear'. The distribution of word and referent in this case provides an instructive contrast with reflexes of */qaRem/ `pangolin' (q.v.), where the animal has the same discontinuous distribution (Taiwan and Borneo), but the native names are cognate, thus requiring a PAN reconstruction. #brown, #grey, #mottled, #feather (3) */baRunbun/ mottled brown and grey (of the feathers of cocks) WMP: CEB /bagunbu'n-un/ kind of grey and brown coloration of chicken feathers; cock having that color feathers TAE' /barumbun/ cock with mottled brown and grey feathers BGS /barumpu9/ color of chicken feathers MAK /barumbu9/ dappled gray, esp. of horses and cocks WOL /barumbu/ cock with green and yellow feathers NOTE: The choice between treating this comparison as a product of chance and treating it as a product of divergent development from a common prototype is difficult. In favor of a hypothesis of cognation are the following observations: (1) the form is relatively long and (granted the proposed morpheme division in Cebuano) free from phonological irregularities; (2) the gloss is relatively distinctive; (3) the semantic agreement between the forms in Cebuano, Tae', and Makasarese is very close. Weakening a hypothesis of cognation are the following observations: (1) CEB_/bagunbu'nun/ is the only proposed cognate outside southern Sulawesi; (2) for the correspondences to be regular we must assume that the Cebuano form contains a reflex of the direct passive suffix */-en/. While this suffix often is found in reconstructed forms that refer to afflictions or maladies of various kinds, it is not ordinarily used to describe non-pathological physical characteristics. #scrape (3) */baRus/ scrape WMP: CEB /ba'gus/ smooth a piece of wood or bamboo with a knife SAS /barus/ scraped (of the skin) SAN /bahuse?/ to scrape (as when a child falls and scrapes his arm) #acquaintance (3) */basa/ acquaintance WMP: KAP /ma-ba'sa/ recognized " /ka-ba'sa/ acquaintance IBAN /ora9 basa/ acquaintances #hit, #strike (1) */basbas/\1 hit, strike F: AMIS /facfac/ to hit, strike -- as a child or a water buffalo WMP: BKL /basba's/ whip; clear a path, usually through tall grass " /ba'sba's/ to whip (beat, hit) MAR /basbas/ smash, beat, whip KB /basbas/ hit, strike with a bundle of palm leaf fibres to drive out ghosts NOTE: Possibly also SAM_/fasi/ (< */fafas-i/?) `beat (child, etc.), kill (an animal), slaughter'. #sprinkle (1) */basbas/\2 sprinkle F: KAV /vasvas/ to water (plants) (3) */basbas/ purify by sprinkling with holy water WMP: DGT /basbas/ bless, pray over someone (either with your hands on him, or waving your hands over him, or sprinkling him with water and incense) TAG /basba's/ blessing, benediction; absolution BKL /basba's/ a rite performed by the /balya'na/ in which the body of the dead is washed with the water-softened leaves of the /lukba'n/ (pomelo) as part of a ritual purification; to exorcise someone KB /basbas/ sprinkle with holy water BM /bobat/ wet, made wet (as by the rain) MAK /ba?basa?/ sprinkle with water NOTE: For KB_/basbas/ (verb form: /masbas/), Neumann_(1951) gives `besprenkelen met /laoe perbasbas/'. The latter is defined as `wijwater' (holy water), and is cross-referenced with /laoe pe9oeras/. Under /oeras/ Neumann gives /9oeras/ `purify (of weapons, etc.) with lemon juice', /9oerasi/ `purify, by means of /laoe pe9oeras/, of evil influences which may attach to persons or things'. The reference to the juice of citrus fruits as a medium of ritual purification in this gloss and less directly in the gloss for BKL_/basba's/ is strengthened by parallel practices among the Bagobo of Mindanao and among the Austroasiatic-speaking inhabitants of the Nicobar islands (Blust_1981: fn. 23). {?? hmm, it's also Hindu -- DS.} Based on the evidence available to date it appears that PMP_*/basbas/ referred to a ritual ablution which involved the sprinkling of water or citrus juice (or a mixture of the two) on the object for purification. In language groups that have become more acculturated to world religions (as the Christian Tagalog and Moslem Makasarese) the original sense of this term has been reinterpreted in different ways. There is no known evidence that the notion of ritual ablution was found in the PAN (as opposed to the PMP) term. Moreover, since AMIS_/fasfas/ `splash, sprinkle' points to */baSbaS/ and KAV_//s// reflects both */s/ and */S/ (Li_1982), the Kavalan term may reflect */baSbaS/. If so, */basbas/ can be assigned only to PWMP. #trim, #prune (3) */basbas/\3 trim, prune WMP: HAN /basba's/ cutting, trimming, as of branches or limbs of a tree AKL /basba's/ chip off, trim off CEB /basba's/ chop off nodes, lumps, etc. in wood or bamboo; husk corn NgD /babas/ pruned rice plants (they are pruned when they grow too rapidly or when they are damaged by vermin) TB /basbas/ pull out the roots in clearing ground SAN /be@base@?/ clear out the tall grass and bushes from a garden #hit, #strike (3) */batbat/ hit, strike hard WMP: ILK /batba't/ strike, whip, beat the shoulder BKL /batba't/ iron, wrought iron AKL /batba't/ pound out metal DPB /batbat/ hit with something hard #impotent (3) */basiR/ sexually impotent WMP: TAG /ba'sig/ caponed, castrated MAL /basir/ hermaphrodite; impotent NOTE: Also MAL_/bancir/ `impotent', BAL_/basur/ `have only one testicle'. #millet (2) */batad/ millet variety WMP: CEB /batad/ STRESS? GLOSS MAR /bantad/ sorghum CMP: KMB /wataru/ maize TET /batar/ maize NOTE: Also LETI_/wetra_/ `maize'. #bundle, #cloth, #clothes (3) */bantal/ bundle of cloth or clothes WMP: CEB /bantal/ bundle something (as dirty clothes) MAR /bantal/ bundle IBAN (Howell_&_Bailey_1900) /bantal/ bundle of clothes OJ /bantal/, /bantal-an/, /pa-bantal/ cloth; a bundle of cloth (as a measure) NOTE: Evidently distinct from Dempwolff's */bantal/ `cushion, pillow'. Given the meaning of the Old Javanese form, MAL_/bantal/ `a measure of thread' may also be related. #young (3) */bataq/ young, of vegetation {?? really just veg?} WMP: TAG /ba'ta?/ child MAR /bata?/ child WBM /bata?/ child SAN /bata/ child KEL /bata?/ green TND /wata?/ young tree TONSEA /bata?/ young of tree, person TNTB /wata?/ young, fresh, strong TONSAWANG /baca?/ child, offspring BM /bata?/ young, of animals and plants; good-looking, esp. of the appearance of youths #mottled, #design, #tattoo (2) */batek/ mottled design, as of a tattoo dbl. */batik/ batik designs dbl. */beCik/ tattoo WMP: BON /ba'tek/ any tattoo other than a man's chest tattoo, especially a woman's arm tattoo ILK /bate'k/ tattoo, tattooing; white spot (on tobacco leaves) CEB /ba'tuk/ small area different in color or texture from the background BTK /bat6'k/ carved designs on wooden handles of tools; design on bark cloth TAE' /bate?/ be given designs in the batik manner MAK /bate?/ be given designs in the batik manner CMP: SIKA /bate/ multi-colored NOTE: Cf. Zorc_(n.d.) PPH_*/batek/ `tattoo, color, design'. #nape, #neck (3) */batuk/ neck, nape of the neck WMP: TAG /ba'tok/ nape of the neck " /batuk-an/ hit or strike someone on the nape of the neck BIN /batuk/ neck NARUM /batuk/ neck LONG ATUN /batuk/ neck #plait, #weave (2) */batuR/ to plait, weave (as mats, baskets) WMP: HIGHLAND MURUT /batug/ weave a mat KAD /vatu/ plait, weave BM /batug/ plait, weave OC: MUS /atu/ to plait (mats, baskets) ARS /hau/ plait SAM /fatu/ make something up, assemble something with the hands HWN /haku/ compose, put in order, arrange; weave, as a lei NOTE: Replaces PAN_*/ba[CtT]u[lq{zero}])/ `plait, weave' (Blust_1972b, no. 55). #trigger on #spring #trap (2) */bauR/ trigger on spring trap WMP: KEL /b-en-aur/ rod, such as a fishing rod #expanse, #land, #water (3) */bawa9/ open expanse of land or water WMP: ILK /bawa'9/ gorge, defile, ravine TBW(K) /bawa9/ river SUB (Churchill_1913) /bawa9/ a place RD /bava9/ river KEL /bawa9/ country LgA /bawa9/ lake BUSANG /bawa9/ swamp, pond, lake BM /bawa9/ spaciousness of view NOTE: Also SIM_/bawa/ `morass, swamp', CEB_/paw?a9/ `gap between things that are normally solid or close to each other'. #upper, #top, #above (2) */bawbaw/ upper surface, top, above dbl. */babaw/\1 WMP: TAG /b-al-awba'w/ overfull CEB /b-al-awba'w/ put something over something else; skin off the topmost portion of something " /bawba'w/ place the gaff higher on a fighting cock so as to give the opponent an advantage KB /bobo/ the space above something CMP: TET /foho/ mountain, hill, mountain range " /foho-n/ the upper part, the top part; upon, on top of SHWNG: BULI /popo^/ above #monitor #lizard, #%Varanus% spp. (3) */bayawak/ monitor lizard, %Varanus% spp. (esp. %V. salvator%) WMP: ILK /baya'wak/ scorpion TAG /baya'wak/ monitor lizard, iguana HAN /baya'wak/ monitor or large lizard (%Varanua salvator Laurenti%), commonly mislabeled ``iguana'' KAD /biavak/ very large lizard IBAN /bayak/ monitor lizard, %Varanus% spp., esp. %V. salvator% MAL /biawak/ monitor lizard, of which there are four varieties: (i) %Varanus salvator%, the largest, (ii) %V. rudicollis% (long-snouted), (iii) %V. dumerili% (tree-monitor), (iv) %V. nebulosus% (long-tailed) " /mem-biawak/ to crawl on one's stomach " (Palembang) /biancak/ monitor lizard, of which there are four varieties: (i) %Varanus salvator%, the largest, (ii) %V. rudicollis% (long-snouted), (iii) %V. dumerili% (tree-monitor), (iv) %V. nebulosus% (long-tailed) SIM /be'awa?/, /fe'awa?/ monitor lizard: %Varanus neculosus% SND /bayawak/ kind of giant salamander, iguana OJ /wayawak/ iguana, monitor lizard GOR /biyawa?o/ monitor lizard NOTE: Also NgD_/bajawak/ `iguana, kind of small crocodile up to seven feet in length', JAV_/men~awak/ `kind of monitor lizard'. Dempwolff_(1938) unnecessarily treated the initial syllables of the Tagalog and Malay cognates as unrelated, and reconstructed */yawak/. In fact, MAL_/biawak/ regularly reflects */bayawak/ through intermediate **/beyawak/, with subsequent contraction of the sequence **/-ey-/. #beach, #shore (3a) */bayba'y/ beach, shore WMP: ILK /bayba'y/ sea (the part next to the shore); beach, shore, strand ISG /bayba'y/ sea, ocean BON /baybay/ sea, any large body of water KAN /bayba'y/ sea, ocean PGS /bayba'y/ sea, seaside DGT /baybay/ sand, beach, seashore KAP /bebe'/ edge, esp. of a body of water TAG /bayba'y/ border, edge, shore BKL /bayba'y/ sand " /baybay-on/ beach, coast, seashore, shore HAN /ba'ybay/ coast, littoral AKL /ba'ybay/ beach, seashore; bank (of a river) WBM /beyvey/ bank of a stream, lake or ocean shore NOTE: The comparison of these uniquely Philippine forms with Bornean forms under a reconstruction */baSay/ in Blust_(1970) is phonologically untenable, and has been abandoned. #bag (3) */bayuqu9/ bag of plaited palm leaves WMP: AKL /bayu'o9/ buri bag (usually for one cavan) HLG /bayu'?u9/ bag made of woven palm leaves MAL (Brun.) /bayo9/ bag of mengkuang (pandanus leaves) for carrying raw sago NOTE: Also ILK_/bay?o'n/ `kind of deep bag or sack made of strips of the limbs of /si'laq/ (buri palm) leaves, and used for holding rice, coffee, etc.'. Possibly a loan from a Philippine language into Brunei Malay, but if so, it is striking that a cognate is unknown in the southern Philippines. #tree, #%Pterospermum% sp. (3) */bayuR/ a tree: %Pterospermum% sp. WMP: HAN /bayu'g/ a tree: %Pterospermum diversifolium% MAL /bayur/ a tree growing to a height of about 80 feet and yielding a durable timber: %Pterospermum% spp. BM /bayug/ kind of small areca palm (?) NOTE: Also MAK_/ban~oro?/ `timber tree'. #strike, #raid (3) */bazaw/ strike one another (as fighting cocks) WMP: CEB /ba'raw/ for fighting cocks to hit each other with their gaffs while in the air IBAN /bajau/ raid, ravage, ravish, make a foray (Richards) MAL /bajau/ to strike up (= /gasak/ `striking hard; (colloquial) ``going for'', ``clearing out'', bolting; (vulgar) sexual intercourse') #peeled, #skinned (3) */bebak/\1 peeled, skinned WMP: KEL /bebhak/ torn (as shirt, pants, mosquito net) " /mebhak/ to tear TB /bobak/ skin of an animal TB /mam-bobah-i/ skin an animal " /mam-bobak hurumna/ scratch the cheeks in a death agony OJ /bebak/ scratched, grazed, abrased JAV /bebak/ peel the skin or husk from (as the first step in processing rice, coffee) BAR /boba/ peeling, hard outer skin; peeled, bald, hairless #slap, #beat on (2) */bebak/\2 slap, beat on WMP: BM /bobak/ beat against stones (as clothes in washing) CMP: MGG /bembak/ trample; hit NOTE: With root */-bak/ `sound of a heavy smack'. #spatter, #fly out in all directions (2) */becik/ spatter, fly out in all directions WMP: WBM /besik/ fly out, as fragments from an explosion TAE' /bassik/ fly out, be sent flying away, splash out, shooting away of small things; leak out, of a secret PSS */b+ssik/ spatter BGS /besik/ spattered, as with mud that splashes up CMP: MGG /wecik/ GLOSS NOTE: With root */-cik/ `fly out, splash, spatter'. #squeeze, #squirt out (2) */becit/, */pe(R)cit/ squeeze, squirt out WMP: KEL /besit/ squirt out (as pus from a pimple) HAN /pusi't/ spurt, spurting, as of blood MAL /percit/ squirting out (of water) CMP: NGA /bhesi/ spray or squirt saliva through the teeth (8) */posit/ squeeze, squirt out OC: NGG /posi/ squeeze out NOTE: With root */-cit/ `squirt out'. The phonemes */c/ and */s/ normally disappeared in Kelabit. Their retention in this and a small number of other forms is unexplained. #millet, #foxtail millet, #%Panicum italicum% (1) */beCe9/ millet sp., probably foxtail millet: %Panicum italicum% dbl. */batad/ F: SAR /ebece9e/ millet RUK /bece9e/ millet (Tana dialect) (2) */bete9/ millet sp., probably foxtail millet: %Panicum italicum% WMP: BGS /wete9/ millet CMP: BIMA /witi/ millet ROTI /bete(k)/ millet TET /fotan/ a variety of millet (Luka dialect) ERAI /hetan/ millet ASI /heten/ millet (%Panicum% spp.) BURU /feten/ foxtail millet: %Panicum italicum% NOTE: Also SAN_/getu9/ `millet', LETI_/wetma/ `millet', KISAR_/wekeme/ `millet', WETAN_/wetma/ `millet', SOB_/bete/ `%Colocasia antiquorum% Schott.'. Mills (1981) posits ``Proto-Indonesian''_*/betem/ `millet sp.', basing the final nasal on forms such as LETI_/wetma/. The material collected here favors a different final nasal, and a greater antiquity for the etymon. {save from old note? NOTE: Also CEB_/batad/, MAR_/bantad/ `sorghum'} #tattoo (1) */beCik/ tattoo F: PAI /vetsik/ writing; tattoo; design (carved, beadwork, etc.) " /v-n-etsik/ to write; to design " /si-vetsik/ writing or drawing implement (2) */betik/ tattoo WMP: KAP /bati'k/ skin blemish KAD /votik/ color; to carve, engrave KEL /betik/ tattoo KEN /betik/ tattoo " /bule9 betik ujo?/ a mark of having taken a head or a slave " /betik kule/ leopard pattern tattoo LgT /betE?/ design, tattoo BGG /botik/ decoration; color; carving BAR /woti/ burn with a brand, decorate something with burn marks (as a lime gourd for betel) MAK /batti?/ speckle, freckle CMP: MGG /wetik/ carve, serrate the edge (of a /tempuru9/ GLOSS, etc.); sign one's name RMB /wetik/ carve; embroider (cloth) NGA /weti/ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1) */b-in-eCik/ tattooed, marked with a design F: PAI /v-n-tsik/ to write; to design [" /v-in-etsik-an/ something which has been written or drawn] (2) */b-in-etik/ tattooed, marked with a design WMP: BAR /w-in-oti/ decorated, adorned NOTE: Also ILK_/batek/ (STRESS??) `GLOSS', TBL_/betek/ `decoration; color', TIM_/batik/ `write, carve' (SOURCE??). #callus, #blister (1) */beCu?/ callus, blister F: AMIS /fso/ bloated; filled with a